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An Annotated Bibliography of Compiled and Annotated by Marisa Rivera Iowa State University Working Paper No. 30 June 1997
About the Author: Marisa Rivera Ms. Rivera is a doctoral candidate in Youth and Human Service Agency Administration at Iowa State University. She been an Administrative Assistant at the Dean of Students Office (Student Affairs) and for the College of Family and Consumer Sciences. She also served as a Research Assistant for the Child Welfare Project through the University of Northern Iowa. She has been both a tutor for elementary students and an advisor for college freshmen.
SUGGESTED CITATION Rivera, Marisa An Annotated Bibliography of Published Materials on Puerto Ricans, JSRI Working Paper #30, The Julian Samora Research Institute, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1997. The Julian Samora Research Institute is committed to the generation, transmission, and application of knowledge to serve the needs of Latino communities in the Midwest. To this end, it has organized a number of publication initiatives to facilitate the timely dissemination of current research and information relevant to Latinos. The Julian Samora Research Institute Working Paper Series provides a mechanism for the systematic dissemination of public policy oriented research on issues affecting Latinos in both the United States as a whole, and the Midwest, in particular. The series publishes reports of empirical studies, theoretical analyses, and policy discussions which address the changing role of Latinos in relation to economic, political, religious, education, and social institutions. Table Of Contents
The island of Puerto Rico is at the eastern end of the Greater Antilles. The island is shaped like a rectangle with a maximum length from east to west of 178 kilometers with a width from north to south of 68 kilometers. The total area of Puerto Rico (including the islands of Vieques, Culebra, and Mona Island) is 8,897 square kilometers. The population is predominantly of Spanish and African ancestry, mainly bilingual; with Spanish being the official language (Cevallos, 1985). Puerto Rico has been filled with controversy (due to conflict over status of the island as well as conflict between those living on the mainland and those remaining on the island) long before United States occupation in 1898. Controversies and conflicts continue and may never cease, however, it is imperative that attention be given to the difficulties which confront the Puerto Rican of today. As the turn of the century quickly approaches and another election year draws near, the issues of empowerment and greater understanding of this population become crucial to their self-actualization. It is with this in mind that the references in this annotated bibliography have been chosen. They were compiled over a four year period which began while I was a doctoral student at Iowa State University. I chose to include references which cover a broad range of topics and cover as many aspects of the Puerto Rican experience as possible, both historical and present day. The topics included are from the social sciences, economics, and politics. A great effort was made to include both scholarly research as well as general interest information for those desiring to become better informed about Puerto Rico and its people. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
The History of Puerto Rico: From the Spanish Discovery to the American Occupation. 1975 Rudolph Adams Van Middeldyk. The Puerto Rican Experience. New York: Arno Press. 318 pps. bibliog. This historical perspective of Puerto Rico is one of the first written in English. It provides an overview of island culture and people from the island's discovery to the Spanish-American War. The author is critical of Spain's rule over Puerto Rico and describes (from an American point of view) the institutions, people, and conditions in Puerto Rico in 1898.
The Puerto Ricans; A Documentary History. 1973 Kal Wagenheim & Olga Jimenez de Wagenheim. New York: Praeger. 332 pps. bibliog. This book covers Puerto Rican history from its Indian beginnings to its migration and mainland experiences. The title is somewhat misleading; the book is not a historical documentary but rather, a collection of brief essays, articles, and excerpts from material on Puerto Rico.
A Chronological History of Puerto Rico. 1973 Frederico Ribes Tovar. New York: Plus Ultra Educational Publishers. 589 pps. The student, teacher, and general reader will find this book a useful source of information. It is a chronology of over 5,000 names and events from prehistory to 1972. The book focuses on both culture and political history. The language is simple and clear, with a detailed table of contents and index which enhances usefulness of the book.
Sources For the Study of Puerto Rican History: A Challenge to the Historian's Imagination. 1981 Blanca Silvestrini-Pacheco & Maria de los Castro Arroyo. Latin American Research Review, vol. 16. no. 2, pps. 156-71. The content of this article eases the researcher's quest for archival sources on Puerto Rican history available in Puerto Rico, Spain, and the United States. Of special value is the description of municipal and notarial holdings in the general archive of Puerto Rico; for each town, the authors have listed the extent of the holdings, the availability of a catalogue or inventory, and the availability of the collection. Furthermore, the article provides a list of documentary sources in the Puerto Rican collection at the University of Puerto Rico.
Puerto Rico, Past and Present: The Island After Thirty Years of American Rule. 1975 Jose Enamorado Cuesta. New York: Arno Press. 170 pps. This book is written from a socioeconomic perspective and provides a critical account of the first 30 years of U.S. occupation. In considering Puerto Rico's economy, the author details the harsh conditions of the agricultural laborer, and discusses many of the socio- economic factors which would later worsen.
Puerto Rico; A Socio-historic Interpretation. 1972 Manuel Maldonado-Denis. New York: Vintage Books. 336 pps. This book provides the reader with an alternative view of the history of Puerto Rico. Maldonado-Denis provides one of the finest Marxist interpretations of Puerto Rican history. As a strong supporter of independence, the author indignantly expounds on the colonial status of Puerto Rico by imperialist Spain and imperialist United States. The book was originally published in 1969 under the title Puerto Rico: Una Interpretacion Historico-Social.
Puerto Rico, a Political and Cultural History. 1983 Arturo Morales Carrion. New York: Norton. 384 pps. map. bibliog. This book is a comprehensive text published for the English-language reader and college student. Written by six highly-esteemed Puerto Rican historians, the book covers the period from the island's Indian beginnings to the 1970's. The recurring theme of this book is the search for identity and offers a comprehensive view of the political history.
Puerto Rico and its Problems. 1975 Victor Seldon Clark. New York: Arno Press. 707 pps. bibliog. This author, formerly the Commissioner of Education in Puerto Rico, provides a comprehensive report of the 1930 Brookings Institution survey of the conditions in Puerto Rico 30 years after American occupation. The survey found that very little had improved since U.S. occupation in 1898, and Clark attributes the lack of progress to overpopulation. This book is written through an American perspective but despite the author's biases, the report is thorough; it includes tables on public health, education, government, public expenditure and revenue, taxation, finance, public employees, public works, banking, trade, manufactures, and agriculture in 1930.
Puerto Rico and its People. 1975 Trumbull White. New York: Arno Press. 383 pps. In 1938, the former Spanish-American war correspondent wrote this journalistic account of Puerto Rico after 40 years of American rule. Specifically, the author is reviewing the social, economic, and political conditions in Puerto Rico. Throughout, the reader will gain an understanding of American attitudes towards Puerto Rico and a knowledge of the country during the first half of the 20th Century. Against general opinion, White considered Puerto Rico worse off in 1938 than in 1898. He considers the problems of Spanish in the schools as a miscue between two cultures; he also discusses the problems of the Puerto Rican economy and does not consider Puerto Rico the island paradise that others thought it to be.
From Colonia to Community (The history of Puerto Ricans in New York City) 1994 Virginia E. Sanchez Korrol. Berkeley: University of California Press. 275 pps. First published in 1983, this book remains the most comprehensive full-length study documenting the historical development of the Puerto Rican community in New York. Expanded and updated, the author's work traces the growth of the early Puerto Rican settlements, or "colonias," into the unique, vibrant, and well-defined community that it is today.
Puerto Rican Americans (The Meaning of Migration to the Mainland) 1987 Joseph P. Fitzpatrick. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 208 pps. This book looks at the nature of migration and the long and turbulent history of Puerto Rican newcomers to New York. The author looks at the emergence of two Puerto Rican worlds: one in Puerto Rico, the other in the continental United States. Very clearly written with a descriptive, analytic overview of the ethnic heritage by an expert in the field of intergroup relations.
Puerto Rico: A Colonial Experiment 1984 Raymond Carr. New York: Vintage Books. 477 pps. The author provides a comprehensive analysis of the Puerto Rican-U.S. relationship. It is a rich and understanding examination of the problems inherent in living with - and loosening - the bonds between a superstate and a quasi-colonial possession. The book is divided into two parts. The first describes the colonial period and the evolution of Puerto Rico's present relationship with the United States. The second treats events and issues between the election campaign of 1980 and mid-1982.
Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans (Studies in History and Society) 1974 Adalberto Lopez & James Petras, Ed. New York: Halstead Press. 499 pps. This book is a compilation of essays, poetry, literature, and scholarly articles written almost entirely by Puerto Ricans, and covering almost every aspect of their island. The main objectives of this volume are to trace the Hispanic roots of the Puerto Rican culture; to explore the tangled relationships between Puerto Rico and the U.S. since 1898, and to explore relationships among the Puerto Rican people. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
Modernization, Delayed Marriage and Fertility in Puerto Rico: 1950-1970. 1976 Klaus de Albuquerque, Paul D. Mader, & William F. Stinner. Social and Economic Studies (Jamaica), vol. 25. no. 1 (March), pps. 55-65. bibliog. Although dated, the data represented in this research shows a significant longitudinal study of the relationship between urbanization, education, and fertility. Based on the authors' analysis of municipal-level census data, the increase in urbanization was not related to declining fertility, and surprisingly, increased female education was negatively related to delayed marriages.
Puerto Rico: A Case Study of Population Control. 1977 Bonnie Mass. Latin American Perspectives, vol. 4. no. 4 (Fall), pps. 66-81. bibliog. The author regards the use of sterilization in Puerto Rico as 'imperialist social control.' From her socialist perspective, she argues that the United States supported sterilization as a means to halt the immigration of Puerto Ricans to the United States, to control massive unemployment, and to control the composition of the population. This point of view is a thought-provoking, alternative analysis of the birth control issue.
Puerto Rico: Recent Trends in Fertility and Sterilization. 1980 Harriet B. Presser. Family Perspectives, vol. 12, no. 2 (March-April), pps. 102-107. bibliog. A brief analysis, with statistical data, of the factors which may have contributed to the decline in Puerto Rican fertility since 1950. Some factors were the prevalence of female sterilization, the increased use of contraceptives, abortion, and an increase in the proportion of single women of all ages between 1960-70.
Colonialism, Catholicism, and Contraception: A History of Birth Control in Puerto Rico. 1983 Annette B. Ramirez de Arellano & Conrad Seipp. Chapel Hill, North Carolina; London: University of North Carolina Press. 219 pps. bibliog. Birth control has been a hotly debated issue in Puerto Rico. This publication captures the intensity of the confrontation within the context of shifting social, cultural, political, and economic conditions prevalent on the island. The title succinctly states the perspective of the authors; birth control was caught between Puerto Rico's colonial relationship to the United States and the island's Catholic heritage resulting in a classic battle between church and state. People and events are well-chronicled in this history of birth control.
Puerto Rican Return Migration in the 70's. 1979 Frank Bonilla & Hector Colon Jordan. Migration Today, vol. 7 (Apr.), pps. 7-12. This brief article provides a much-needed historical context for Puerto Rican return migration in the 1970's. It serves as a reminder that at least 40% of the immigrants arriving between 1890 and 1910 returned to their homeland; therefore, the return to Puerto Rico cannot be considered a new phenomenon. Bonilla argues, from a socialist viewpoint of worker struggle and oppression, that Puerto Rican migration was always part of a circulating dispersal of workers for capitalist gain, and return migration was always a component of the migration movement. An interesting and sobering presentation of migration and re-return phenomena.
Effects of Migration on Children. 1980 Joseph O. Prewitt-Diaz, Robert T. Trotter & Vidal A. Rivera, Jr. The Education Digest, Ethnographic Data and Recommendations. (April). The report served to determine if the informants utilized in the authors' ethnography perceived the factors that affected the performance of children currently being served by migrant education programs. The accounts recorded and their interpretations suggest the existence of "the culture of migrancy." This report contains the primary results of approximately 3,000 hours of interviews with migrants in the United States.
Why Puerto Ricans Migrated to the United States in 1947-1973. 1976 Rita M. Maldonado. Monthly Labor Review, vol. 99, no. 9 (Sept.), pps. 7-18. The author uses regression analysis to test the hypothesis that Puerto Ricans migrated to the United States because of employment opportunity, income, welfare payments, and unemployment compensation payments. The author concludes that in the period 1947-67, unemployment and income explain most of the migration to the United States; since 1967, other non-economic variables have become more important in influencing migration.
Social Dynamics of Return Migration to Puerto Rico. 1975 Celia Fernandez de Cintron & Pedro A. Vales. Rio Piedras: Centro de Investigaciones Sociales, Universidad de Puerto Rico. This study isolates the sociological factors which encompass the process of Puerto Rican migration. Answers to the following questions were sought by the authors: what motivated a Puerto Rican to migrate in the first place and then to return; what are the socioeconomic characteristics of Puerto Rican migrants during different stages of the migration process; and what do migration and return migration mean? The authors found, among other things, that for males, the prime reason for migration is economic; for females, the reason for migration is personal. Return migration is influenced by family ties.
Mental Health of Two-way Migrants: From Puerto Rico to the United States and Return. 1985 Joseph O. Prewitt-Diaz & Juris G. Draguns. Paper presented at the Circum-Mediterranean Regional Conference: "Ethnic Minority and Immigrant Research." (June). Discussed in this paper are the mental health needs of two-way migrants from Puerto Rico to the United States and back again. The four factors affecting Puerto Rican migrants are outlined. First, the relationship between migration and stress is considered. It is noted that by migrating away from stressful economic conditions, the Puerto Rican encounters even more stressful cultural and social conditions. Second, migration has a disruptive effect on the family cycle. This is discussed in terms of changing family roles, exposure to different cultural behavior, separation of husband from the rest of the family, and the problems of "neo-ricans," United States-born children of return migrants. The third factor discussed is how Americanization causes a greater emphasis on personal achievement, school adjustment, acculturation, and orientations rather than focusing on the family. The authors conclude that the impact of migration, integration, and acculturation on the mental health of the Puerto Rican migrant and return migrant needs to be systematically evaluated.
Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity. 1993 Juan Flores. Arte Publico Press:Houston, Texas. This book is a collection of essays encompassing history, literature, and culture by this celebrated commentator. The book extends the whole concept of Puerto Rican culture beyond the island to the working class communities in New York and the East Coast as well as the interaction with African Americans and with workers' movements.
Puerto Rican Migration and Occupational Selectivity, 1982-1981. Edwin Melendez. International Migration Review, vol. 33. no. 1, pps. 49-67. This study addresses the likelihood of whether or not Puerto Rican workers migrating to the United States depends on their occupations or skills. The study found that the occupational composition among Puerto Ricans migrating from the island to the United States generally corresponds to the occupational distribution in Puerto Rico. However, after controlling for labor market conditions in Puerto Rico and in the United States and for other characteristics of the migrants, farm workers, laborers, and craft and kindred workers are overrepresented in the flow of migrants. The factors that are most important in contributing to the occupational distribution of migrants are whether or not they already have job offers in the United States and whether they are currently employed in Puerto Rico. Among those returning to Puerto Rico, the study found neither positive nor negative occupational selectivity. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change
Latinos, Poverty and the Underclass: A New Agenda for Research. 1993 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 15. no. 4 (Nov.), pps. 449-475. During the 1980's scholars interested in Hispanic issues sought to advance research by ensuring that Latinos were included in the ongoing debate on the urban underclass. In this article, Massey argued that Blacks and Latinos differ in such fundamental ways that the underclass model which was developed primarily to describe the situation of inner-city Blacks cannot legitimately be employed to understand the social and economic problems of contemporary Hispanic groups in the United States. Although both groups share high rates of poverty and social dislocation, these high rates are generated through different mechanisms and for different reasons. Very comprehensive and thought-provoking.
Is There a Hispanic Underclass? 1989 Joan Moore. Social Science Quarterly, vol. 70. no. 2 (June), pps. 265-283. It is now quite clear that poverty in this country is serious and persistent. Further, the proportion of poor people has - with some fluctuation - risen between 1977 and 1987. For Hispanics, it grew from 22.4% in 1977 to 28.2% in 1987 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1988). This is alarming, so much so that recently some social scientists have been suggesting that minority poor might possibly represent a real class, a proletariat, inflexible, enduring, and in short, an "underclass." In this article the author takes Wilson's theory of the underclass and reviews the pertinent literature on Hispanics to assess whether long-standing Hispanic poverty can be conceptualized using Wilson's model.
Hispanic Population of the United States. 1987 Frank D. Bean & Marta Tienda. The Population of the United States in the 1980's A Census Monograph Series. National Committee for Research on the 1980 Census. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. This book is a compilation of topics which spans virtually all the major features of American society as they pertain to Hispanics in the United States. For example, ethnic groups, migration, neighborhoods, housing income families and households, to name a few. The primary source of information for this book was the 1980 U.S. Census as well as previous censuses and subsequent national data.
Geographic Differentials in the Socioeconomic Status of Puerto Ricans: Human Capital Variations and Labor Market Characteristics. Maria E. Enchautegui. International Migration Review, vol. 26. no. 4, pps. 1267-1289. The role of human capital and labor market characteristics in explaining geographical and individual differentials in socioeconomic outcomes of Puerto Rican women are examined in this article. The better socioeconomic performance of Puerto Ricans outside the Northeast can be in part related to their larger amount of human capital. Labor market characteristics also play a role, but their effects are generally small. Net of other characteristics, Northeast residence reduces labor force participation, increases female headship, but reduces welfare use. Of all groups examined, recent migrants from Puerto Rico located in the Northeast show the poorest socioeconomic outcomes.
The Cultural Dichotomy of Colonial People 1982 Hector R. Bird. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, vol. 10. no. 2 (Apr.), pps. 195-209. bibliog. Using Puerto Rican society as an example, this article adds to the understanding of the development of a colonial society. The author discusses the principles of individual development in the colonial process; and he presents a perspective of Puerto Rican society.
Workforce Readiness and Wage Inequality: Public/ Private Perspectives. 1992 National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. Washington, D.C. (July). This report is a result of a conference held in November 1991 addressing policy issues, activities, and organization dealing with the renewal and revitalization of Puerto Rican communities in the hopes of illustrating what can be done when holistic approaches that include linkages and partnerships between corporations, community-based organizations, and government agencies are established.
Puerto Rican Participation in Job Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) Programs. A Preliminary Assessment. 1992 National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. Washington, D.C. (Nov.). This report presents the findings of a preliminary assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of Job Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) programs, the welfare-to-work centerpiece of the Family Support Act, in moving Puerto Rican welfare recipients closer to the goal of self-sufficiency.
Moving From the Margins: Puerto Rican Young Men and Family Poverty. 1993 National Council of La Raza. Washington, D.C. (Aug.). This report contains the first-year findings of the National Council of La Raza (NCLR) Puerto Rican Young Men and Poverty Project. This report documents the current socioeconomic status of mainland Puerto Ricans and underscores the need to focus both policy attention and community-based efforts to help reduce Puerto Rican poverty. It is suggested that understanding and improving the socioeconomic status of young Puerto Rican men and their families through a combination of self-help, community-based, and public policy strategies can offer important information on how to address other facets of poverty in the U.S., including urban poverty and the poverty of female-headed families.
Parental Work, Family Structure, and Poverty Among Latino Children. 1995 Daniel T. Lichter & Nancy S. Landale. Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 57 (May), pps. 346-354. This article evaluates the extent to which differences in the economic well-being of Latino and non-Latino White children reside in divergent parental work patterns and/or family living arrangements. This was done using recently-released data from the 5% Public Use Microdata Sample of the 1990 U. S. Census. The results indicate that group differences in family structure undermine efforts to eliminate racial and ethnic inequalities in children's economic well-being. The study found that among Puerto Ricans and African Americans, the high proportions of children living in female-headed families account for over 50% of the difference in poverty from non-Latino Whites. Parental work patterns are more important among Latinos than Blacks in accounting for the high poverty rates of children. They explain roughly 40% of the poverty gap between Latino and non-Latino White children in female-headed families, although substantial variation exists across Latino groups. The analysis indicates that policies narrowly designed to "strengthen the family" or to promote maternal employment without regard to wage levels will neither eliminate inequality nor have similar ameliorative effects on child poverty across racial and ethnic groups.
Explaining the Growth of Puerto Rican Poverty, 1970-1980. George Galster & Anna M. Santiago. Urban Affairs Quarterly, vol. 30. no. 2, pps. 249-274. Cross-metropolitan variations in Puerto Rican poverty are examined, using an instrumental variables regression model. The analyses highlight the role of residential segregation and economic restructuring on Puerto Rican poverty from 1970 to 1980. Decomposition of changes during the 1970's revealed that the primary sources responsible for increased Puerto Rican poverty rates were structural: Poverty grew stronger as a result of segregation and the ability of manufacturing employment and self-employment to attenuate poverty grew weaker.
Social Anthropology in Puerto Rico. 1978 Ronald J. Duncan. Revista/Review Interameri-cana, vol. 8. no. 1 (Spring), pps. 3-64. bibliog. The seminal social anthropological study "The people of Puerto Rico" (1956) by Julian H. Steward is re-evaluated in this special issue. The methodology used in the study has been severely criticized. The six papers in this issue examine different aspects of the study. Sidney Mintz, a contributor to the Steward study, considers the role of Puerto Rico in modern social science; Eric R. Wolf, a contributor to the Steward study, comments on the work; William Rosebery considers the relationship between Marxism and anthropology; Rafael L. Ramirez considers anthropology within the context of change in social sciences since 1940; Rene Velazquez examines Steward's emphasis on materialism; and Ronald J. Duncan rounds off the presentation with a discussion of the 'culturing system' concept.
The Question of Color in Puerto Rico. 1974 Thomas G. Mathews. In: Slavery and Race Relations in Latin America. Edited by Robert Brent. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pps. 299-323. map. bibliog. This article reviews literature on slavery and finds it lacking with regard to prejudice. There is also discussion on Spanish slavery, racial composition in Puerto Rico, and examples of racial discrimination. The author believes it is a mistake to believe there is no racial prejudice in Puerto Rico and states further that the worst kind of prejudice is the belief that there is none at all.
The Black Puerto Rican: An Analysis of Racial Attitudes. 1974 William W. Megenny. Phylon, vol. 35. no. 1, pps. 83-93. bibliog. Based on interviews with blacks throughout the island and at different socioeconomic levels, the author concludes that Puerto Rican blacks do not feel that their color and race impede their social mobility. According to the blacks he interviewed, interracial mixing has blurred color prejudice; therefore, they feel racially and socially accepted and relatively equal to white Puerto Ricans. This article represents a counter-balance to the work of Betances and Mathews.
A Demographic Profile of Puerto Ricans in the United States. 1992 National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. Washington, D.C. (Nov.). This profile provides a description of the demographic and socioeconomic conditions of the Puerto Rican community in the United States as of 1990. It is intended to serve as an aid in understanding the demographic, social, and economic conditions of the Puerto Rican community and in setting priorities for policies affecting the community.
Puerto Ricans in the U.S.: A Changing Society 1994 Francisco L. Rivera-Batiz & Carlos Santiago. National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. Puerto Ricans constitute the second largest Latino population in the United States. Close to three million Puerto Ricans presently reside in the United States, and the numbers are growing rapidly. There were 700,000 more Puerto Ricans in the United States in 1990 than in 1980. The analysis is based largely on data provided by the 1980 and 1990 Censuses of Population, supplemented by other sources only when necessary. The decennial census represents the most comprehensive count of the American population and the most detailed survey of its characteristics.
Patterns of Living in Puerto Rican Families. 1975 Lydia Jane Roberts & Luisa Stefani. New York: Arno Press. 411 pps. Originally published in 1949 by the University of Puerto Rico, this work represents an extensive study of living conditions in Puerto Rico during the 1940's. The authors looked at families from various income levels and from urban and rural settings. The study focuses on housing, health, and nutrition in relation to the makeup of the Puerto Rican family. There is a discussion of policies and programs which could alleviate the poverty found on the island. The work also provides the reader with a good historical perspective on Puerto Rican social conditions.
Puerto Ricans: A Multi-racial Group in a Bi-racial Country. 1989 Clara E. Rodriguez. The question of race among Puerto Ricans in the United States in the 20th Century is explored in this paper. The multi-racial character of Puerto Ricans is examined by reviewing Puerto Rico's migration history. Eighteen major works written between 1917 and 1971 on Puerto Ricans are reviewed to discern common racial themes. The methodology of the major works reviewed is analyzed and seven themes found in the literature are discussed. These are: (1) the question of whether Puerto Ricans are a race or not; (2) the continuum of racial types among Puerto Ricans and corresponding names for these types; (3) the generally more "benign" quality of race relations in Puerto Rico; (4) the harsher racial climate in the United States; (5) personal prejudice and the prejudice of no prejudice in Puerto Rico; (6) the theme of "mistaken identity;" and (7) anticipated assimilation paths. These themes reflect the ongoing conflict of two different racial classification systems, that of the United States and that of Puerto Rico.
An Economic Approach to Marital Dissolution in Puerto Rico. 1990 Maria E. Canabal. Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 52 (May), pps. 515-530. This study examines the socioeconomic determinants of marital dissolution and the resulting female-headed families in Puerto Rico. The author found that the presence and number of children under six years of age, the religious participation of wives, and the increased age of marriage (up to approximately 30 years) decrease the probability of dissolution. Factors that positively affect marital dissolution are wives' labor force participation, living in a metropolitan area, and participation in a consensual rather than a legal marriage.
The Urban Poor of Puerto Rico: A Study in Development and Inequality. 1974 Helen Icken Safa. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. 116 pps. bibliog. An important study which considers the social changes of people relocated from slums in a shantytown to urban government housing; it was begun in 1959-60, and re-interviews were conducted in 1969; after ten years, the author finds that the slum community provided stronger family and friendship bonds. In addition, the study considers why some families were socially mobile and others were not. There are chapters on changes in occupation and standards of living, family and kinship, community solidarity and extra-community relationships, and class consciousness among the poor. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
The Puerto Rican Study - 1953-1957. 1958 J. Cayce Morrison. Board of Education, City of New York. The purpose of the Puerto Rican study was a four year inquiry into the education and adjustment of Puerto Rican students in the New York City school system. The study is divided into three parts: a presentation of the development of methods and materials for teaching English to non-English speaking children, it describes the materials developed, and charts a program for their continuing improvement; the second part discusses the problems of achievement of the Puerto Rican child and the inter-relationships of language and cultural adjustment; finally, the data and conclusions of the Puerto Rican Study are brought together. Extremely comprehensive and well-written, many of the findings and conclusions while written in the 50's, can be applied today.
Puerto Rico: Tragedy in the Schools. National Education Association. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. A critical report on the current condition of Puerto Rican schools. First, the schools are in a deplorable and inadequate physical condition; second, the schools' administration is conducted on the basis of political favoritism which is detrimental to the morale of the teaches; and third, student violence in the school is a serious problem. It concludes that given the economic, social, and political problems in Puerto Rico, education must become a priority. The importance of the report must be understood within the context of a two-tier educational system; the middle class send their children to private schools, and the poor are left with a deteriorating public school system.
Education in Puerto Rico and of Puerto Ricans in the U.S.; Abstracts of American Doctoral Dissertations. 1978 Edited by Franklin Parker & Betty June Parker. San Juan: Inter-American University Press. A useful bibliography of dissertation concerned with Puerto Rican education on the island and the mainland.
Puerto Ricans on the Mainland: The Educational Experience. (The legacy of the past and the agony of the present) 1972 Francesco Cordasco. Journal of Human Relations, vol. 20. no. 3, pps. 344-378. This article provides an overview of the Puerto Rican experience within the confines of the Mainland educational system. It also takes a look at 'The Puerto Rican Study" which was undertaken as a means of addressing the needs of Puerto Rican children entering the New York City school system.
A History of Education in Puerto Rico. 1975 Juan Jose Osuna. New York: Arno Press. Second edition. 657 pps. A comprehensive history of education from Spanish rule to the mid-1940's. Originally presented as the author's doctoral dissertation, it is evident throughout this work that Spain neglected her colony's educational development, just as education was neglected in Spain itself. The church played an important role in Puerto Rican education. Osuna presents one of the most complete accounts on the language issue under the rule of the United States, as it manifested itself in the educational arena.
Educational Aspirations of Puerto Rican Mothers for Their Children. 1978 Maria A. Montalvo & Earl J. Ogletree. 15 pps. The purpose of this study was to determine the expectancy levels of Puerto Rican mothers for their children's educational careers. A sample of 125 mothers whose children attended a Chicago elementary school, located in a lower socioeconomic Spanish-speaking community, provided the data reported. Specific factors examined in relation to the mothers' educational aspirations for their children include: (1) the educational and occupational levels of the mothers; (2) the mothers' geographical origin; (3) family size; (4) language dominance at home; and (5) family income.
Hispanic Women Making Their Presence on Campus Less Tenuous. 1991 Sara Nieves-Squires. Project on the status and education of Women. Association of American Colleges. Washington, D.C. Up to now, minimal attention has been paid to Hispanics in America's colleges and universities, and thus little has been written about the experiences of Hispanic women. Some may view Hispanic women as a group with few specific concerns. In some instances, programs aimed at recruiting Hispanic faculty members, staff members, or students focus primarily on Hispanic men; similarly, programs aimed at helping women may overlook minority women in general, and of Hispanic women specifically. This report examines some of the experiences that Hispanic women have as students, faculty members, and administrators. Recommendations for institutional use appear at the end.
Ethnic Identity and School Achievement as Perceived by a Group of Selected Mainland Puerto Rican Students. 1992 Francisco Flavio Marsiglia & Ofelia Halasa. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Assoc. Young Puerto Ricans forge their ethnic identities through their language. The use of ethnographic theory and methods were utilized to study this nexus from a naturalistic perspective. A focus group of 12 Puerto Rican 8th grade students (nine males and three females) attending a school within one Puerto Rican barrio in Cleveland (Ohio) was used. The students were from 13 to 17 years old. Although their parents were all bilingual-Spanish dominant or monolingual in Spanish, two students were monolingual in Spanish, two used English solely, and eight were basically bilingual. An open-ended inquiry was utilized for the interpretation of their own behavior, beliefs, values, and self-perception. Focus was on exploring whether and how ethnic identity structures educational outcomes by assessing students' personal and cultural history, family, community, and society.
Migrant Students' Perceptions of Teachers, School and Self. 1984 Joseph O. Prewitt-Diaz. Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 58, pps. 391-394. The number of returning school-aged migrants to Puerto Rico has increased dramatically in the past five years. This study explored the perceptions returning migrants and circulating migrant students had of teachers, school, and self in Puerto Rico and the United States.
The Institutional Climate for Talented Latino Students. 1994 Sylvia Hurtado. Research for Higher Education, vol. 35. no. 1. In the last decade, there has been a 48% increase in Latino enrollment in colleges and universities, yet increases in the college-age population mask an actual decline in the Latino college-going rate (Carter & Wilson, 1991; Orfield, 1991). The tremendous leakage in the education pipeline, along with the increased segregation in America's high schools among this group, suggests that mostly open-access colleges located near growing Hispanic populations may actually face substantial increases of Latino enrollments. The purpose of this study is to provide an understanding of how high-achieving Latino students perceive the receptivity of their institutions to a Latino presence on campus. This study is multi-institutional study with its prime objective to identify areas for institutional improvement to help administrators become more aware of specific climate issues facing talented Latino students at four-year institutions.
The Puerto Rican Community and Natural Support Systems: Implications for the Education of Children. 1992 Melvin Delgado. Paper written for the Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C.; Office of Educational Research and Improvement. This report is divided into sections and explores how service providers and educators can better understand, support, and work with Puerto Rican natural support systems through a variety of collaborative strategies. The first section presents a definition of Puerto Rican natural support systems and a discussion of how they are operationalized, and describes the following five general types: (1) the extended family; (2) folk healers; (3) religious groups; and (4) systems are non-existent; and (5) shame. There are implications and recommendations made by the author for reaching this community through use of the natural support systems.
Graduate School Racial Climates and Academic Self-Concept Among Minority Graduate Students in the 1970's. 1994 Sylvia Hurtado. American Journal of Education, (May). A model reflecting the influence of parental socioeconomic status (SES), gender, pre-college assessments, and the graduate school's racial climate on academic self-concept addressed through a longitudinal study of African American and Chicano students attending graduate school in the 1970's. The study determines that early influences and the components of academics self-concept change as students move into adulthood. Minority females are consistently behind males in views of their academic self-concept. Academic self-concept was reported higher in graduate racial climates characterized by low trust and interaction among groups. Important questions are raised regarding the development of academic self-concept among minorities in graduate school. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
Explaining the Growth of Puerto Rican Poverty, 1970-1980. George Galster & Anna Santiago. Urban Affairs Quarterly, vol. 30. no. 2, pps. 249-274. The authors examine cross-metropolitan variations in Puerto Rican poverty, an instrumental variables regression model is utilized. Highlighted in the analysis is the effect of residential segregation and economic restructuring on Puerto Rican poverty in 1970 and 1980. Decomposition of changes during the 1970's revealed that sources responsible for increased Puerto Rican poverty were primarily structural. For example, the effects of segregation on poverty grew stronger during the decade, and the ability of manufacturing employment and self-employment to attenuate poverty grew weaker.
Residential Segregation of Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans in Selected U.S. Metropolitan Areas. 1989 Douglas S. Massey & Nancy A. Denton. Sociology and Social Research, vol. 73. no. 2, (Jan.). The residential segregations of Mexicans, Cubans, and Puerto Ricans in selected U.S. metropolitan areas in 1980 are compared in this article. The patterns that were established during the 1960's were found to be persistent through the 1970's. The study indicates that Mexicans are moderately segregated from Anglos and highly segregated from Blacks, whereas Puerto Ricans are moderately segregated from Blacks and highly segregated from Anglos; Cubans are highly segregated from both groups.
Racial Identity Among Caribbean Hispanics: The Effect of Double Minority Status on Residential Segregation. 1989 Nancy A. Denton & Douglas S. Massey. American Sociological Review, vol. 54 (Oct.), pps. 790-808. Within the Caribbean region, racial identity forms a multi-category continuum from white to black, whereas in the United States it is a dichotomy of black versus white. Many Caribbean Hispanics, therefore, reject a strict racial dichotomy and select some category intermediate between black and white when asked to identify themselves racially on the U.S. Census. Using 1970 and 1980 census tract data, we show that these people display a low degree of segregation from white Hispanics and a high degree of segregation from both black Hispanics and non-Hispanic Blacks. They are highly segregated from Anglos, however, suggesting that people of mixed racial ancestry are accepted by White Hispanics on the basis of shared ethnicity but are rejected by Anglos on the basis of race. Black Hispanics are highly segregated from all groups. These findings have changed little over time and persist despite socioeconomic controls. Although both race and ethnicity remain potent factors in American life, results underscore the special salience of race in U.S. society.
Explaining the Paradox of Puerto Rican Segregation. 1985 Douglas S. Massey & Brooks Bitterman. Social Forces, vol. 64. no. 2 (Dec.), pps. 306-331. Previous research has shown that Puerto Ricans are highly segregated from non-Hispanic whites and moderately segregated from blacks, with socioeconomic factors having no effect on these patterns. These findings are opposite those observed for other Hispanic groups and contradict the fundamental tenets of ecological theory. This paper explains these anomalous patterns and brings results for Puerto Ricans into conformity with prior theory and research on residential segregation. The Puerto Rican anomaly stems from their very low SES and their black ancestry. Low social status leads directly to high segregation, while a high percentage of blacks among Puerto Ricans draws them strongly towards residence near non-Hispanic blacks. Since Anglos avoid living near blacks, Puerto Ricans become bystander victims of Anglos' racial prejudice, leading to their residential segregation in society.
Puerto Ricans and the Underclass Debate. 1989 Marta Tienda. Annals, AAPSS, vol. 501 (Jan.). This article uses data from the Current Population Surveys of 1975, 1980, and 1985 and the 1980 census of population to investigate why the economic status of Puerto Ricans has declined more than that of Mexicans and Cubans. The working hypothesis - that structural factors, namely, rapidly falling employment opportunities in jobs where Puerto Ricans traditionally have worked and the concentration of Puerto Ricans in areas experiencing severe economic dislocation, are largely responsible for their disproportionate impoverishment - finds considerable support. Results based on the Current Population Surveys show that Puerto Ricans are distinct from Mexicans and Cubans in that their labor market instability and complete withdrawal began earlier-in the mid-1970's, compared to the late 1970's, and was more extreme. Furthermore, the analysis of census data shows that the constraints on Puerto Ricans resulting from ethnic labor market divisions and high unemployment rates are stronger than those on Mexicans or Cubans, lending support to structural interpretations of the Puerto Ricans' economic distress. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
The Puerto Rican Woman. (Perspectives on Culture, History and Society) 1986 Edited by Edna Acosta-Belen, with collaboration of Elia Hidalgo Christensen. New York: Praeger. 212 pps. bibliog. This book fills the vacuum in scholarly research on Puerto Rican women. Now in its second edition, it provides a primary source of comprehensive material of the Puerto Rican woman within diverse cultural, historical, and socioeconomic contexts.
Women Without Men: Domestic Organization and the Welfare State as Seen in a Coast Community of Puerto Rico. 1979 Lydia Morris. British Journal of Sociology, vol. 30. no. 3 (Sept.), pps. 322-40. An interesting study conducted in El Bajio considers the relationship between the organization of the household and socioeconomic factors. According to the author, male unemployment was related to a higher incident of marital problems; and women receiving financial assistance from the government had independent households.
Social and Emotional Needs of Culturally Diverse Children. 1980 Ronald W. Henderson. Exceptional Children, vol. 46. no. 8. This article addresses issues pertaining to stereotypes and methodology as it relates to children of culturally diverse backgrounds. It also discusses the discontinuity which culturally diverse children experience between the home environment and school environment any how it relates to the academic difficulties they experience.
Family Ecology of Ethnic Minority Children. 1990 Algea O. Harrison, Melvin N. Wilson, Charles J. Pine, Samuel Q. Chan & Raymond Buriel. Child Development, vol. 61, pps. 347-362. An examination of the ecology of ethnic minority families is made using an ecological framework. The article is divided into four sections: demographic information, presents some of the adaptive strategies ethnic groups undertake in order to their environment; socialization goals and a discussion of child outcomes. Very detailed.
Understanding Latino Families. 1995 Ruth E. Zambrana, Ed. Scholarship, Policy, and Practice. Sage Publications, Inc. This book is a compilation of manuscripts which examine topics relevant to issues related to Latino families. Some of the topics covered are, parenthood, marriage, diversity among Latino families, and policy implications. The book includes significant research, methodology and family theories. It is an excellent book.
An Exploration of Human Sexuality in the Puerto Rican Culture. 1986 Nilsa M. Burgos & Yolanda I. Diaz Perez. Sexuality, Ethnoculture, and Social work. The Haworth Press, Inc., pps. 135-150. The purpose of this article is to contribute to the discussion of sexuality within the Puerto Rican cultural context with implications for social work. It aims to raise issues, encourage debate and does not presume to be definitive.
Research Issues Concerning the Puerto Rican Child and Family. 1980 Lloyd H. Rogler, et al. Fordham University, Hispanic Research Center. This journal issue is a collection of papers describing research on Hispanic families conducted at the Hispanic Research Center, Fordham University, Bronx, New York. The topics include: health conditions, intergenerational change in ethnic identity in the Puerto Rican family; social characteristics; Hispanic intermarriage in NYC; the impact of environment on the mental health of Puerto Ricans in NYC; intellectual assessment of Hispanic children; alternative approaches to the study of lower socioeconomic status, urban Puerto Rican children and the appropriateness of multi-disciplinary research in assessing the mental health of Hispanic children.
Research with Hispanic Populations. 1991 Gerardo Marin & Barbara VanOlss Marin. Sage Publications, Inc., New York. Provides excellent comprehensive insight into the process of conducting research with individuals of Hispanic origin. A concise, easy to read - a valuable tool for anyone considering cross-cultural research.
Child Care Constraints on the Labor Force Participation of Puerto Rican Women. 1994 Emily Rosenbaum & Ronald J. Ortiz. Paper presented at the 1994 annual meetings of the Population Association of America, Miami. This paper evaluates the reports by Puerto Rican mothers of young children that they would look for work or work more hours if satisfactory and affordable child care were available. Earlier studies of this kind have not included Puerto Ricans, a significant omission given this group's low socioeconomic status, the low labor force participation of Puerto Rican women, and observations that the well-being of Puerto Ricans families is increasingly dependent on women's labor supply. The authors found that the lack of child care significantly constrains women's labor supply: 40% of those not in the labor force said they would look for work if satisfactory child care were available, and just under one-fourth of employed mothers stated they would work more hours. Further, child care constraints are greatest for poor and welfare-receiving mothers. These findings are consistent with those reported by other researchers that child care constraints are most serious for those women with the greatest need to work, but who often have the fewest resources to enable them to do so.
The Family Life Course of Puerto Rican Children. 1992 Nancy S. Landale & Susan M. Hauan. Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 54 (Nov.), pps. 912-924. Recent studies document a high and rising rate of female family headship among mainland Puerto Ricans. Using data from a survey of Puerto Rican women residing in the New York City area in 1985, this paper examines the implications of changing marital behavior for the course of Puerto Rican children's family life. The findings imply that Puerto Rican children face rising risks of experiencing sustained poverty during childhood.
Intergenerational Change in Ethnic Identity in the Puerto Rican Family. 1980 Lloyd H. Rogler, Rosemary Santana Cooney, & Vilma Ortiz. International Migration Review, vol 14. no. 2, pps. 193-214. This paper presents an analysis of ethnic identity based upon an intensive study of 100 intergenerationally linked Puerto Rican nuclear families in metropolitan New York and adjoining states. Three important components of ethnic identity included in this study are: subjective affiliation with Puerto Rican values; mastery and use of the Spanish and English languages; and attitudinal preferences for Puerto Rican culture.
Family, Work and Women: The Labor Supply of Hispanic Immigrant Wives. Haya Stier & Marta Tienda. International Migration Review, vol. 26. no. 4, pps. 1291-1313. The article focuses on the economic circumstances and the family arrangements that govern the labor supply of Hispanic immigrant wives in the United States. We use a two-stage estimation procedure and a specification that models individual and familial factors that influence the labor supply of all women and those unique to immigrants. The analysis, based on a sample of Hispanic immigrant wives obtained from the 1980 U.S. Census, examines immigrant wives of Mexican, Puerto Rican and other Hispanic origin and compares their labor supply with that of their native-born counterparts and U.S. - born white wives. Results indicate that the labor force behavior of Hispanic immigrant wives is highly responsive to their earning potential and, unlike that of U.S. born white wives, is less constrained by their familial role as mothers.
Informal Unions Among Mainland Puerto Ricans: Cohabitation or an Alternative to Legal Marriage? Nancy S. Landale & Katherine Fennelly. Journal of Marriage and the Family. This paper examines the meaning of informal unions among mainland Puerto Rican women with data from a survey of Puerto Rican women residing in New York City and its surrounding counties in 1985. The primary aims of the analysis are: (a) to compare the characteristics of women in informal unions to those of women who are single and women who are legally married; (b) to assess whether Puerto Rican women define their informal unions as nonmarital cohabitation or a form of a marriage; and (c) to examine the predictors of women's definitions of informal unions. Overall, the results show that among Puerto Ricans informal unions are more akin to marriage than singlehood.
The Cultural Context: A Factor in Assertiveness Training with Mainland Puerto Rican Women. 1985 Lillian Comas-Diaz & Joan W. Duncan. Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 9, pps. 463-476. This study examined the inclusion of a cultural component in an assertiveness training program. Participants were low income Puerto Rican women. There were four training groups divided up according to educational level. In addition, there was a no-training group consisting of Puerto Rican women who did not receive assertiveness training. Ten sessions of an hour and a half each were conducted over a period of 10 weeks. The training program was evaluated using a translation of the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Gay, Hollandsworth, & Galasi, 1975) as a pre/post program measure of assertiveness; evaluation forms completed by recipients at the close of each session were also used for evaluation purposes. Assertiveness score of the training group were significantly higher than those of the no-training group. In addition, this effect was true regardless of level of education. Session-by-session evaluation forms suggested that cultural context may be an important mediator of assertive behavior. Limitations of the study are discussed, and it is recommended that future research examine the role of cultural factors in assertiveness training.
Impact of External Systems on the Puerto Rican Family. 1974 Emelicia Mizio. Social Casework, (Feb.). Social workers are aware of the critical importance of health and well-integrated families to their individual members and to society at large. The importance of understanding ethnic differences in family systems is also well understood, and it is vital to the appreciation of the Puerto Rican family. This knowledge, however, is incomplete without reference to the impact of external systems. A family can only be truly understood when it is reviewed in transaction with its environment.
Work, Family and Health. Latino Women in Transition. 1982 Ruth E. Zambrana, Ed. Hispanic Research Center, Fordham University. Bronx, New York. Monograph No. 7. This monograph offers insight into the needs of Latina women. For example their changing family roles, employment patterns, and health status. This anthology aims to provide a more systematic critique of the past work on Latina women, particularly Puerto Ricans, to identify existing gaps in our knowledge and to develop research and policy directions for the future.
The Well-being of Recently Divorced Puerto Rican Women. 1987 Margarita Alegria, Rafaela Robles & Mildred Vera. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association. New York. (Aug.). Puerto Rico - although Hispanic, Roman Catholic, and conservative about women's role - has one of the highest divorce rates in the world. Puerto Rico's divorce rate has increased substantially since the process of industrialization began. This study analyzed 300 Puerto Rican women divorced between July 1980 and May 1981. Findings indicate that they are young, have completed more years of education than their ex-husbands, and have surpassed the mean educational attainment for the general population. Of the women, 65.5% lived in urban areas, 73%were heads of households, and 80% had from one to three children. The fact that 51% of these women are participating in the labor force and that they occupy higher positions in the work structure than their ex-husbands contradicts the findings of earlier studies. A higher educational and employment status appears to be associated with better psychological well-being. High levels of home stress, job stress, and role overload seem to be associated with lower levels of psychological well-being in the women. By contrast, the greater the income satisfaction reported by the divorced women, the more enhanced her psychological well-being. Despite the stresses and changes that divorce entails, 75% of the women said they would repeat the experience if the circumstances were repeated. Data are presented on six tables and figures.
Household Composition, Employment Patterns, and Income Inequality: Puerto Ricans in New York and Other Areas of the U.S. Mainland. 1992 Havidan Rodriguez. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 14. no. 1 (Feb.), pps. 52-75. This study focuses on the impact of household composition, educational attainment, and employment characteristics on household income for Puerto Rican householders in New York and other areas of the United States from 1970 to 1980. New York householders had lower levels of education, in particular fewer college graduates, and lower labor force participation, and a higher proportion of female-headed households. Although average household income declined for both groups, New York householders had significantly lower incomes relative to those residing elsewhere. Regression standardization showed that, in 1980, the average compositional characteristics of New York Puerto Ricans were unfavorable to household income. Further, they received less income for their average characteristics, when compared to householders not residing in New York. It is suggested that the deteriorating economic conditions of Puerto Ricans is a result of joblessness and low-skilled, low-wage jobs among those employed. Industrial restructuring, low levels of education, and the dramatic growth of female-headed households also accounts for their depressed economic status and explains some of the differences in economic well-being between New York and non-New York householders. Further, the problems of mainland Puerto Ricans have been exacerbated by racial and ethnic discrimination. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
Puerto Rican Familism: Considerations for Family Therapy. 1988 Luis H. Zayas & Josephine Palleja. Family Relations, vol. 37, pps. 260-264. The Puerto Rican cultural value of familism has been described as a traditional modality that emphasizes the obligation and duties of family members to one another (Rogler & Cooney, 1984). As a core value of Puerto Rican families on the United States mainland, familism has endured the changes in cultural values brought about by repeated migrations between the United States mainland and Puerto Rico, the influences of social and economic trends in the United States, and the pressures to acculturate to American society. Familiarity with this cultural value helps the family therapist accurately define the family's problems and needs, and promotes an intervention approach congruent with the Puerto Rican family's expectations.
A Retrospective on "The Suicidal Fit" in Mainland Puerto Ricans: Research Issues. 1989 Luis H. Zayas. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 11. no. 1 (Feb.), pps. 46-57. The so-called "suicidal fit" among Puerto Ricans in New York City was reported by Trautman over two decades ago. Based on a sample of 93 Puerto Ricans who, under severe emotional stress, attempted suicide in almost identical circumstances, his writings provide an early view of suicidal behavior among Puerto Ricans in the South Bronx during the late-1950's. In the intervening time, very little work has been done to further document and elucidate suicidal behavior among Puerto Ricans, and other Hispanics, in the mainland United States. The paucity of available knowledge for clinicians and researchers about the nature of suicide among contemporary New York Puerto Ricans poses serious problems for mental health programs and practice. This articles reviews Trautman's research, commenting on methodology and interpretations of findings, and discusses implications for mental health research with mainland Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups.
Feminist Therapy with Mainland Puerto Rican Women. 1987 Lillian Comas-Diaz. Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 11, pps. 461-474. This article discusses the use of feminist therapy with mainland Puerto Rican women. Sociocultural factors such as the experience of cross-cultural translocation, the process of transculturation, and the colonial background of Puerto Rico with its deleterious effects are examined. Special emphasis is given to Puerto Rican sex roles, the paradoxical condition of power and powerlessness, and Puertoriquenas' complex sense of identity. These issues are illustrated with a clinical population, and as such, may represent an extreme position within the range of reactions to these sociocultural variables.
The Health of Latino Children in the United States. 1994 Fernando S. Mendoza. Critical Health Issues for Children and Youth, vol. 4. no. 3 (Winter). The Latino population in the United States is large and fast-growing, with a high proportion of children relative to other U.S. populations. These demographic trends make it imperative for policy-makers to consider health issues for Latino children and families. This article provides an overview of the important health issues for Latino children in the United States. Its aim is not to set out specific policies, but rather to identify factors that are critical to consider in policy development. Factors discussed include current and projected demographic trends; the underlying diversity of the Latino population and its implications for health and health care; significant health issues in each developmental phase of maturation, from infancy through adolescence; and more global issues including limited access to medical care and high rates of uninsured children. Finally, policy implications are outlined.
Therapeutic Services for Hispanic Families in Transition. 1986 Aileen L. Garriott. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of AAMFT. (Oct.). Immigrant people have positive internal forces to survive in a new environment. Sometimes the symptoms of stress resulting from migration are mistakenly treated as symptoms of deeper psychopathology, particularly when cultural conflicts are part of the stress. Catholic Family Services offers counseling services for Hispanics which are sensitively tailored to fit into their patterns of relationships, enabling Hispanics to make a positive transition into the community and helping the community to accept and appreciate Hispanic cultural strengths. Stressful factors for Puerto Rican families include the inability to speak English or to read and write well in Spanish, change from a rural area to a new climate in an urban setting, the alienation caused by children's schools, and difficulties in employment.
Culturally Sensitive Treatment of Adolescent Puerto Rican Girls and Their Families. 1984 Luis H. Zayas & Carl Bryant. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, vol. 1. no. 4 (Winter). Adolescence for the Puerto Rican girl in the United States constitutes a phase of life in which developmental tasks are strained by the demands of her family and exposure to two cultures. This stress renders her adaptive potentials vulnerable to dysfunction. The authors describe the Puerto Rican family, the girl's socialization, the stress of living in dual cultures, and implications for behavioral problems. These factors are integrated to help the practitioner design culturally sensitive interventions.
The Psychosocial Development of Puerto Rican Women. 1989 Cynthia T. Garcia Coll & Maria de Lourdes Mattei, Editors. Praeger Publishers, New York. This book is a collection of manuscripts which examine various aspects of Puerto Rican women's' development through the life span. For example, childhood and adolescence; adulthood and growing old; and the transition Puerto Rican women experience upon migrating to the United States. An excellent book.
Pregnant Hispanic Women: A Mental Health Study. 1992 Luis H. Zayas & Nancy A. Busch-Rossnagel. The Journal of Contemporary Human Services. (Nov.). By most accounts, pregnant Hispanic women are a population at risk for perinatal health and mental health problems. In this article, the authors report on a pilot study of the mental health status of 86 low-income, pregnant Hispanics. Three cases drawn from a community-based, primary care clinic demonstrate how Hispanic women may appear in the clinical setting and how interventions can be designed.
Hispanic Adolescent Fathers: At Risk and Underresearched. 1987 Luis H. Zayas & David Casareno. Children and Youth Services Review, vol. 9, pps. 235-248. The literature on adolescent fathers largely ignores Hispanic Americans. Studies of adolescent fathers, most often involving black males, suggest directions for research among Hispanic males. In this paper, we review the small literature on adolescent fathers relative to several nonexclusive dimensions. These dimensions are adolescent fathers' needs and problems; relationships to the adolescent mothers; social supports and help seeking behavior; and attitudes toward fatherhood and contraception, perception of locus of control, and academic achievement. Using the existing empirical literature and integrating knowledge of the Hispanic culture and community, a future research agenda on Hispanic adolescent fathers is outlined.
Childrearing, Social Stress and Child Abuse: Clinical Considerations with Hispanic Families. 1992 Luis H. Zayas. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, vol. 1. no. 4, pps. 291-309. Child abuse in our multicultural society is a national emergency. As a nation, our approach to managing this societal crisis has been one of indifference to cultural variations among families and children, under the prevailing belief that cultural diversity does not play a part when serving a sin actors of individual psychology. Traditional childrearing values and practices and factors of assessment and intervention are discussed with an emphasis on the changing characteristics of Hispanics.
A Model of Fertility Control in a Puerto Rican Community. 1982 Stephen L. Schensul, Maria Borrero, Victoria Barrera, Jeffrey Backstrand, & Peter Guarnaccia. Urban Anthropology, vol. 11. no. 1, pps. 81-99. Research carried out by the Hispanic Health Council has revealed a high sterilization rate of Puerto Rican female heads or co-heads of households in Hartford, Connecticut. This paper views sterilization within the context of fertility control in general and attempts to identify those cultural, community and individual factors associated with fertility decisions in the Puerto Rican community. Using both quantitative survey data and qualitative in-depth interviews these issues are sorted out in an inner city community faced with high socioeconomic stress and limited resources.
Personal Adjustment of Puerto Rican Adolescents. 1993 Dorothy Maizel. Paper presented at the annual Convention of the APA. Puerto Rican children and adolescents appear more at risk for below average school achievement and for mental health problems and service referrals than other Hispanic youngsters. The cognitive style and emotional and behavioral patterns associated with the personal adjustment of 80 Puerto Rican adolescents from single-parent and dual-parent homes in Brooklyn, New York were explored. Forty youths were from female-headed, single-parent homes and 40 were from dual-parent families. Questionnaires and self-reports were utilized to compare the adolescents' personal adjustment. Measured were: attribution style, depressive symptomatology, competent behaviors, and problem behaviors. The mothers of the 80 adolescents also completed questionnaires but the self reports were completed as the mothers believed their sons or daughters would have completed them. Adolescents from the single-parent families reported more external problem behaviors than adolescents from dual-parent families. Puerto Rican male adolescents reported more competent behaviors than Puerto Rican female adolescents and male adolescents from dual-parent families revealed better personal adjustment than male adolescents from the single-parent families. Public programs and policy makers should consider the importance of the parental roles of single-parent and dual-parent families in the long term adjustment of children.
Sex-role Traditionalism and Assertiveness in Puerto Rican Women Living in the United States. 1983 Elaine Soto. Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 11. (Oct.). Historical and clinical descriptions of Puerto Rican women living in the United States suggest that they are more sex-role traditional and less assertive than other American women, even though working and studying in the United States. The purpose of this study was to determine whether generation (first versus second) and education affect sex-role traditionalism and assertiveness in Puerto Rican women living in the United States. The questionnaire was administered to 278 Puerto Rican women (18 to 55 years of age) and contained demographic questions and measures of sex-role traditionalism and assertiveness. Sex-role traditionalism was measured by a scale designed especially for this study, with items derived from the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1973) and the Attitudes Toward Feminism Scale (Smith, Ferree, & Miller, 1975), plus nine items designed specifically for Puerto Rican women. Assertiveness was measured by the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Gay, Hollandsworth, & Gallassi, 1975). Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child
A Study of Self-esteem and School Sentiment on Two Groups of Puerto Rican Students. 1983 Joseph O. Prewitt Diaz. Educational and Psychological Research, vol. 3. no. 3, pps. 161-167. This study examined the effects of a bilingual education program on the self-esteem and school sentiment of recent arrival Puerto Rican students. The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory and the School Sentiment Inventory were used to gather the data. The analysis of the data indicated that after one academic year in a bilingual education program, the recent arrival of Puerto Rican students scored higher in a measure of self-esteem and school sentiment than mainland Puerto Rican students. The conclusion was that students who are involved in additional activities through bilingual programs would have a higher perception of themselves and an unmixed sentiment toward school.
A Cross-cultural Study of the Reliability of the Coopersmith Self Esteem Inventory. 1984 Joseph O. Prewitt Diaz. Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 44, pps. 575-580. The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability of the Spanish translation of the Self Esteem Inventory (SEI) with a group of Puerto Rican students on the island and another on the mainland. The sample was composed of 296 high school students ages 15-18. The study concluded that the Spanish translation of the SEI was a reliable instrument in evaluating the personal judgment of worthiness for Puerto Rican students in the island and the mainland United States.
Assessment of Puerto Rican Children in Bilingual Education Programs in the United States: A Critique of Lloyd M. Dunn's Monograph. 1988 Joseph O. Prewitt-Diaz. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 10. no. 3, pps. 237-252. This article comments on Dunn's translation of the PPVT-R into Castillian Spanish and the process he used to norm this instrument with the Puerto Rican and Mexican American children. Demographic characteristics of Hispanics, specifically Puerto Ricans and Mexican Americans, in the United States are provided. A review of relevant literature excluded by Dunn in his discussion of the scholastic, intellectual, and linguistic assessment of Puerto Rican and Mexican American children follows. It is concluded that the Spanish version of the PPVT-R is inappropriate to measure receptive language in Puerto Rican and Mexican American children in the United States because it does not follow cross cultural methods for test translation and validation.
The Predictive Validity of the Spanish Translation of the WISC-R (EIWN-R) with Puerto Rican Students in Puerto Rico and the United States. 1986 Joseph O. Prewitt Diaz, Maria D. Rodriguez, & David Rivera Ruiz. Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 46, pps. 401-407. The WISC-R was translated into Spanish and published by the Psychological Corporation a research edition in 1982. The escala de inteligencia Wechsler para Ninos-Revisada (EIWN-R) was published as a research edition. This paper reports on two preliminary studies with Puerto Rican children and adolescents. The first study was performed in Puerto Rico with 51 upper elementary school children. The EIWN-R was found to be a reliable instrument for this population. The second study was performed with a population of 80 students in Hartford, Connecticut. The purpose of the Hartford study was to determine if the EIWN-R would be a good predictor of achievement for students in a bilingual program. The results indicated that the EIWN-R is an appropriate predictor of academic achievement for the population in this study.
Correlations Among Scores on Woodcock-Johnson Achievement Subtest (Spanish), WISC-R (Spanish) and Columbia Mental Maturity Scale. 1989 Joseph O. Prewitt Diaz & Rosalinda Rivera. Psychological Reports, vol. 64, pps. 987-990. Spanish translation of the Woodcock-Johnson Achievement Battery, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised, and the Columbia Mental Maturity Scale were administered to 30 Puerto Rican first grade pupils. Analysis confirms the concurrent validity of the Spanish versions of WISC-R with Columbia Mental Maturity Scale and the Spanish WISC-R is a valid and reliable instrument to measure intellectual functioning of Puerto Rican children with Spanish as their preferred mode of communication. Scores on the nonverbal Columbia scale correlate more strongly with the WISC-R verbal scaled scores and may be used with recently arrived non-English speakers.
Reliability of an Experimental Version in Spanish of the WISC-R with Puerto Rican Children 9-5 to 13-1 Years of Age. 1986 Joseph O. Prewitt Diaz & Maria D. Rodriguez. Psychological Reports, vol. 58, pps. 271-275. The reliability of the experimental version of the Spanish translation of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children-Revised (WISC-R; EIWN-R) was the purpose of this study. The test was administered to a group of 51 subjects in grades 4 and 5. A summary of the items showed that in all the subtests the items were generally ordered from less to most difficult Correlations between all subtests and the Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale scaled scores ranged between .20 for Arithmetic and Picture Completion to .94 between the Verbal and Full Scales. Alpha coefficients of reliability ranged from .53 for Arithmetic to .80 for Vocabulary. Test-retest correlations for Coding and Digit Span were .70 and .78, respectively. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index
Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. (1983). A Study of Self-Esteem and School Sentiment on Two Groups of Puerto Rican Students. Educational and Psychological Research, vol. 3 (3), pps. 161-167. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. (1984). A Cross-Cultural Study of the Reliability of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 44, pps. 575-580. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. (1988). Assessment of Puerto Rican children in Bilingual education programs in the United States: A critique of Lloyd M. Dunn's monograph. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 10 (3), pps. 237-252. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O., Rodriguez, Maria D. & Rivera Ruiz, David. (1986). The Predictive validity of the Spanish translation of the WISC-R (EIWN-R) with Puerto Rican students in Puerto Rico and the United States. Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 46, pps. 401-407. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. & Rivera, Rosalinda. (1989). Correlations among scores on Woodcock-Johnson Achievement Subtest (Spanish), WISC-R (Spanish) and Columbia Mental Maturity Scale. Psychological Reports, vol. 64, pps. 987-990. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. & Rodriguez, Maria D. (1986). Reliability of an experiment version in Spanish of the WISC-R with Puerto Rican children 9-5 to 13-1 years of age. Psychological Reports, vol. 58, pps. 271-275.
Education Cordasco, Francesco. (1972). Puerto Ricans on the mainland: The educational experience. (The legacy of the past and the agony of the present.) Journal of Human Relations, vol. 20 (3), pps. 344-378. Delgado, Melvin. (1992). The Puerto Rican community and natural support systems: Implications for the education of children. Paper written for the Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C.; Office of Educational Research and Improvement. Hurtado, Sylvia. (1994). The institutional climate for talented Latino students. Research for Higher Education, vol. 35 (1). Hurtado, Sylvia. (1994). Graduate school racial climates and academic self-concept among minority graduate students in the 1970's. American Journal of Education, May. Marsiglia, Francisco Flavio & Halasa, Ofelia. (1992). Ethnic identity and school achievement as perceived by a group of selected Mainland Puerto Rican students. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Montalvo, Maria A. & Ogletree, Earl J. (1978). Educational aspirations of Puerto Rican mothers for their children. 15 pps. Morrison, J. Cayce. (1958). The Puerto Rican Study - 1953-1957. Board of Education, City of New York, 1958. National Education Association. Puerto Rico: Tragedy in the schools. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association. Nieves-Squires, S. (1991). Hispanic women making their presence on campus less tenuous. Project on the status and education of Women. Association of American Colleges. Washington, D.C. Osuna, Juan Jose. (1975). A History of education in Puerto Rico. New York: Arno Press. Second edition. 675 pps. Parker, Franklin & Parker, Betty June (Eds). (1978). Education in Puerto Rico and of Puerto Ricans in the U.S.A.; Abstracts of American doctoral dissertations. San Juan: Inter-American University Press. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. (1984). Migrant students' perceptions of teachers, school and self. Perceptual and Motor Skills, vol. 58, pps. 391-394.
History Carr, Raymond. (1984). Puerto Rico: A colonial experiment. New York: Vintage Books. 477 pps. Fitzpatrick, Joseph P. (1987). Puerto Rican Americans (The meaning of migration to the Mainland). Second edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 208 pps. Enamorado Cuesta, Jose. (1975). Puerto Rico, past and present: The island after thirty years of American rule. New York: Arno Press. 170 pps. Lopez, Adalberto & Petras, James (Eds.) Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans (Studies in history and society). New York: Halstead Press. 499 pps. Maldonado-Denis, Manuel. (1972). Puerto Rico: A socio-historic interpretation. New York: Vintage Books. 336 pps. Morales Carrion, Arturo. (1983). Puerto Rico, a political and cultural history. New York: Norton. 384 pps. map. bibliog. Ribes Tovar, Frederico (1973). A chronological history of Puerto Rico. New York: Plus Ultra Educational Publishers. 589 pps. Sanchez-Korrol, Virginia (1994). From colonia to community (The history of Puerto Ricans in New York City) Berkeley: University of California Press. 275 pps. Seldon Clark, Victor. (1975). Puerto Rico and its problems. New York: Arno Press. 707 pps. bibliog. Silverstrini-Pacheco, B. & de los Castro Arroyo, M. (1981). Sources for the study of Puerto Rican history: A challenge of the historian's imagination. Latin American Research Review, vol. 16 (2), pps. 156-71. Van Middeldyk, R.A. (1975). The history of Puerto Rico: From the Spanish discovery to the American occupation. New York: Arno Press. 318 pps. bibliog. Wagenheim, K. & Jimenez de Wagenheim, O. (1973). The Puerto Ricans: A documentary history. New York: Praeger. 332 pps. bibliog. White, Trumbull. (1975). Puerto Rico and its people. New York: Arno Press. 383 pps.
Mental Health Comas-Diaz, Lillian. (1987). Feminist therapy with Mainland Puerto Rican women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 11, pps. 461-474. Garriot, Aileen L. (1986). Therapeutic services for Hispanic families in transition. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of AAMFT. Oct. 1986. Maizel, Dorothy. (1993). Personal adjustment of Puerto Rican Adolescents. Paper presented at the annual convention of the APA. Mendoza, Fernando S. (1994). The health of Latino children in the United States. Critical Health Issues for Children and Youth, vol. 4 (3). Schensul, S., Borrero, M., Barrera, V., Backstrand, J. & Guarnaccia, P. (1982). A model of fertility control in a Puerto Rican community. Urban Anthropology, vol. 11 (1), pps. 81-99. Soto, Elaine. (1983). Sex-role traditionalism and assertiveness in Puerto Rican women living in the United States. Journal of Community Psychology, vol. 11 (Oct.). Zayas, Luis H. & Bryant, Carl. (1984). Culturally sensitive treatment of adolescent Puerto Rican girls and their families. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, vol. 1 (4) (Winter). Zayas, Luis H. & Casareno, David. (1987). Hispanic adolescents fathers: At risk and underresearched. Children and Youth Services Review, vol. 9, pps. 235-248. Zayas, Luis H. & Palleja, J. (1988). Puerto Rican familism: Considerations for family therapy. Family Relations, vol. 37, pps. 260-264. Zayas, Luis H. (1989). A retrospective on "the suicidal fit" in Mainland Puerto Ricans: Research issues. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 11 (1) pps. 46-57. Zayas, Luis H. & Busch-Rossnagel, Nancy A. (1992). Pregnant Hispanic women: A mental health study. The Journal of Contemporary Human Services. Zayas, Luis H. (1992). Childrearing, social stress and child abuse: Clinical considerations with Hispanic families. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, vol 1 (4), pps. 291-309.
Migration Bonilla, Frank, Colon Jordan, H. (1979). Puerto Rican return migration in the 70's. Migration Today, vol. 7 (Apr.), pps. 7-12. de Albuquerque, K., Mader, Paul D. & Stinner, William F. (1976). Modernization, delayed marriage and fertility in Puerto Rico: 1950-1970. Social and Economic Studies (Jamaica), vol. 25 (1) (March), pps. 55-65. Fernandez de Cintron, C. & Vales, P. A. (1975). Social dynamics of return migration to Puerto Rico. Rio Piedras: Centrol de Investigaciones Sociales, Universidad de Puerto Rico. Flores, Juan. (1993). Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican identity. Arte Publico Press: Houston, Texas. Maldonado, Rita M. (1976). Why Puerto Ricans migrated to the United States in 1947-1973. Monthly Labor Review, vol. 99 (9) (Sept.), pps. 7-18. Mass, Bonnie. (1977). Puerto Rico: A case study of population control. Latin American Perspectives, vol. 4 (4) pps. 66-81. bibliog. Melendez, Edwin. (1992). Puerto Rican migration and occupational selectivity, 1982-1981. International Migration Review, vol. 33 (1), pps. 49-67. Presser, Harriet B. (1980). Puerto Rico: Recent trends in fertility and sterilization. Family Planning Perspectives, vol. 12 (2) (March-April), pps. 102-107 bibliog. Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O., Trotter, Robert T. & Rivera, Vidal A. Jr. (1980). Effects of migration on children. The Education Digest, Ethnographic Data and Recommendations. (April). Prewitt-Diaz, Joseph O. & Draguns, Juris G. (1985). Mental health of two-way migrants: From Puerto Rico to the United States and return. Paper presented at the Circum-Mediterranean Regional Conference: "Ethnic Minority and Immigrant Research." (June). Ramirez de Arellano, A. & Seipp, C. (1983). Colonialism, Catholicism, and contraception: A history of birth control in Puerto Rico. Chapel Hill, North Carolina. London: University of North Carolina Press. 219 pps. bibliog. Poverty, Social Class and Social Change Bean, Frank D. & Tienda, Marta. (1987). Hispanic population of the United States. The population of the United States in the 1980's: A Census Monograph Series. National Committee for Research on the 1980 Census. Russell Sage Foundation, New York. Bird, Hector R. (1982). The cultural dichotomy of colonial people. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, vol. 10 (2), pps. 195-209. bibliog. Canabal, M. (1990). An economic approach to marital dissolution in Puerto Rico. Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 52, pps. 515-530. Duncan, Ronald J. (1978). Social anthropology in Puerto Rico. Revista/ Review Interamericana, vol. 8(1), pps. 3-64. bibliog. (Spring). Enchautegui, Maria E. (1992). Geographic differentials in the socioeconomic status of Puerto Ricans: Human capital variations and labor market characteristics. International Migration Review, vol. 26 (4), pps. 1267-1289. Galster, George & Santiago, Anna M. (1994). Explaining the growth of Puerto Rican poverty, 1970-1980. Urban Affairs Quarterly, vol. 30 (2), pps. 249-274. Icken Safa, Helen. (1974). The urban poor of Puerto Rico: A study in development and inequality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. 116 pps. bibliog. Lichter, Daniel T. & Landale, Nancy S. (1995). Parental work, family structure, and poverty among Latino children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 57, pps. 346-354. Massey, Douglas. (1993). Latinos, poverty, and the underclass: A new agenda for research. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 15 (4), pps. 449-475. Mathews, Thomas G. (1974). The question of color in Puerto Rico. In: Slavery and race relations in Latin America. Edited by Robert Brent. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. pps. 299-323. map. bibliog. Megenny, William W. (1974). The black Puerto Rican: An analysis of racial attitudes. Phylon, vol. 35 (1), pps. 83-93. bibliog. Moore, Joan. (1989) Is there a Hispanic underclass? Social Science Quarterly, vol. 70 (2), pps. 265-283. National Council of La Raza. (1993). Moving from the margins: Puerto Rican young men and family poverty. National Council of La Raza, Washington, DC. (Aug.). National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. (1992). A demographic profile of Puerto Ricans in the United States. National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc., Washington, D.C. (Nov.). National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. (1992). Workforce readiness and wage inequality: Public/ private perspectives. National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc., Washington, D.C. (Jul.). National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc. (1992). Puerto Rican participation in job opportunities and basic skills (JOBS) programs: A preliminary assessment. National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc., Washington, DC (Nov.). Rivera-Batiz, Francisco L. & Santiago, C. (1994). Puerto Ricans in the United States: A changing society. National Puerto Rican Coalition, Inc., Washington, D.C. Roberts, Lydia & Stefani, Luisa. (1975). Patterns of living in Puerto Rican families. New York: Arno Press. 411 pps. Rodriguez, Clara E. (1989). Puerto Ricans: A multi-racial group in a bi-racial country.
Segregation Denton, Nancy A. & Massey, Douglas S. (1989). Racial identity among Caribbean Hispanics: The effect of double minority status on residential segregation. American Sociological Review, vol. 54, pps. 790-808. Massey, Douglas S. & Bitterman, Brooks. (1985). Explaining the paradox of Puerto Rican segregation. Social Forces, vol. 64 (2), pps. 306-331. (Dec.). Massey, Douglas S. & Denton, Nancy A. (1989). Residential segregation of Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans in selected U.S. metropolitan areas. Sociology and Social Research, vol. 73 (2), (Jan.). Tienda, Marta. (1989). Puerto Ricans and the underclass debate. Annals, AAPSS, vol. 501 (Jan.).
Women, Children & Families Acosta-Belen, E. (Ed.). (1986). The Puerto Rican woman. (Perspectives on culture, history and society). New York: Praeger. (Second edition). 212 pps. bibliog. Alegria, M., Robles, R. & Vera, M. (1987). The well-being of recently divorced Puerto Rican women. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association. New York. August 1987. Burgos, Nilsa M. & Diaz Perez, Yolanda I. (1986). An exploration of human sexuality in the Puerto Rican culture. In: Sexuality, Ethnoculture, and Social Work. pps. 135-150. The Haworth Press, Inc. Comas-Diaz, Lillian & Duncan, Joan W. (1985). The cultural context: A factor in assertiveness training with Mainland Puerto Rican women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 9, pps. 463-476. Landale, Nancy S. & Hauan, Susan M. (1992). The family life course of Puerto Rican children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. 54 (Nov.), pps. 912-924. Landale, Nancy S. & Fennelly, Katherine. (1992). Informal unions among Mainland Puerto Ricans: Cohabitation or an alternative to legal marriage? Journal of Marriage and the Family, vol. (54). Mizio, E. (1974). Impact of external systems on the Puerto Rican family. Social Casework (Feb.). Morris, Lydia. (1992). Women without men: Domestic organization and the welfare state as seen in a coast community of Puerto Rico. British Journal of Sociology, vol. 30 (3), pps. 322-340. (Sept.). Rodriguez, H. (1992). Household composition, employment patterns, and income inequality: Puerto Ricans in New York and other areas of the U.S. Mainland. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 14 (1), pps. 52-75. Rogler, Lloyd H. (1980). Research issues concerning the Puerto Rican child and family. Fordham University, Hispanic Research Center. Rogler, Lloyd H., Santana Cooney, Rosemary & Ortiz, Vilma. (1980). Intergenerational change in ethnic identity in the Puerto Rican family. International Migration Review, vol. 14 (2), pps. 193-214. Rosenbaum, Emily & Ortiz, Ronald J. (1994). Child care constraints on the labor force participation of Puerto Rican women. Paper presented at the 1994 annual meetings of the Population Association of America, Miami (1994). Stier, H. & Tienda, M. Family, work and women: The labor supply of Hispanic immigrant wives. International Migration Review, vol. 26 (4), pps. 1291-1313. Zambrana, Ruth E (Ed.). (1982). Work, family and health. Latino women in transition. Hispanic Research Centers, Fordham University. Bronx, New York. Monograph No. 7. Introduction | History | Migration & Population | Poverty, Social Class, and Social Change | Education | Segregation | Women, Children & Families | Mental Health | Assessment and the Puerto Rican Child | Subject/Author Index |
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