Chapter Twenty

A Rich Tradition Continues

The roots of Chicano/a art are ancient. In fact, we can appropriately describe it as the second oldest artistic tradition in North America, after the Native American. The antiquity of Chicano/a art-literature, drama, music, the visual arts, cinema-can be explained in part by the intermingling of Spanish and Indian cultures after the conquest of Mexico. As we have seen in earlier chapters, New World and European artistic and folkloric customs blended from the earliest days of Spanish settlement in the fifteenth century. This meeting of cultures evolved over centuries and resulted in an inextricable mingling of traditions.

As with other numerical minorities in the United States, however, the pressure toward acculturation to the dominant society greatly modified artistic expression among Mexican Americans in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Artistic production did not altogether cease developing, but it encountered the multiple hardships of oppression and marginalization typical of conquered populations. That the arts and literature survived and later flourished despite the hardships of prejudice against Mexicans, the Spanish language, and mestizo culture indicates the resilience of the creative imagination, as well as the people's endurance.

The form "Chicano/a" is used to avoid sexism and to designate gender inclusiveness. Contemporary Chicago/a art thus may be characterized as born of an ancient tradition but slowed in its progress by external pressures after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
This chapter describes the development of Mexican American creativity in drama, literature, music, the visual arts, and cinema. Readers are encouraged to consult the reading lists and guides at the end of the chapter for further exploration of the treasures of Chicano/a aesthetics.

Drama

Modern Chicano/a drama has arisen directly from the people-whether of the barrios, the migrant stream, or the outgrowths of ancient settlements in New Mexico and Colorado. The origins of this drama, as scholar Jorge Huerta has shown, lie in earlier dramatic forms. For example, at the time of the conquest of Mexico, two types of drama were popular-one Indian, the other Spanish.

The Indian religious rituals, called miloles, and the reenactments of Christian rites by the Spaniards, called pastores, were not compatible because of the differences in their underlying beliefs. Nevertheless, over time the two forms blended to produce a new form, the Mexican mascaradas. The mascaradas were dramatic allegories that flourished throughout the sixteenth century. Indeed, the first non-native Indian New World play, The Last Judgment, written by Friar Olmos in 1533, was an extended mascarada.

The early settlers of post-conquest Mexico took these dramatic practices with them as they moved northward to the Borderlands. Like language and other forms of human expression, art changes with use and time. The mascaradas also evolved into new forms. They became the posadas and pastorales still performed and popular in the Southwest. These dramas celebrate religious beliefs and holy days in grassroots community settings (like church, school, and/or neighborhood) .

Another form that emerged in the isolation of the border frontier was the traveling road show. Called carpas and maromeras, they were performed by road companies similar to the modern vaudeville and summer-stock theater. These traveling performers provided entertainment to towns and villages distant from urban theatrical centers.

This early, popular theatrical base has contributed in a variety of ways to twentieth-century Chicano/a drama. Mexican American dramatists borrowed techniques and customs from them in creating their contemporary plays. Earlier in this century, these dramatists focused primarily on broad religious and historical themes familiar to audiences who understood the cultural traditions from which they evolved. These themes are evident in such works as Arthur Campa's Spanish Religious Folk Theatre in the Spanish Southwest published in 1934.
In more recent times, however, Chicano/a playwrights have worked into their plays more visibly social and political themes. These more recent works combine sophisticated dramatic techniques with ideas from their grassroots origins to make bold thematic statements. The work of El Teatro Campesino and other teatros (i.e., community theater groups), along with the plays of Estela Portillo Trambley, Jorge Huerta, and Carlos Mortón offer fine examples of this development.

Perhaps the most popular of these examples is El Teatro Campesino (ETC), an internationally acclaimed repertory company that grew out of the 1960s' activism in support of farm workers and the United Farm Workers' Union (UFW). During the UFW grape strike of 1965, farm workers under the direction of Luís Váldez began entertaining UFW strikers and supporters on their picket lines in order to keep up their morale. Váldez and his amateur performers entertained the strikers with music and improvised skits called actos. The purpose of the actos, according to Váldez, was to "inspire the audience to social action. Illuminate specific points about social problems. Satirize the opposition. Show or hint at a solution. Express what people are feeling" (Váldez, 1971: p.6). These political themes inspired the founding of ETC and defined its development into a professional theatrical company. Its success led to worldwide tours, numerous awards, and publication of the scripts of some of the actos. Among its most acclaimed productions were Los Vendidos, La Carpa de los Rasquachis, and The Shrunken Head of Pancho Villa.

Váldez and his group eventually expanded their work to motion pictures and produced some of the most memorable of the Chicano/a-identified films of the 1980s. Besides adapting to the screen the famous 1967 poem, I Am Joaquín by Rudólfo "Corky" Gónzales, ETC also produced the movies Zoot Suit and Corridas. In 1988 Váldez directed La Bamba, a commercially successful movie that included in its production some members of the original El Teatro Campesino. As scholar Jorge Huerta states, "any serious study of Chicano theatre must begin with Luís Váldez" (Huerta, 1984: p.403).

Mexican American contributions to motion pictures are varied. They include the work of actors Anthony Quinn, Rita Hayworth, and, more recently, Martin Sheen and Edward James Olmos. Chicano/a film producers and directors include M6ctezuma Esparza, Jesus Treviño, Sylvia Castillo, José Luís Rúiz, Paul Espinoza, brothers Daniel and Juan Salazar of Denver, and others. (See Gary Keller's Chicano Cinema: Research, Reviews, and Resources for further information).

This brief discussion reveals that Chicano/a drama spans a rich heritage of accomplishment. That heritage spans a vast time frame-from ancient origins to twentieth-century film technology.

Los Vendidos

As the Revolucionario (played by José Delgade at left) stands at attention, Honest Sancho (center and played by Felix Alvarez) offers a sales pitch for this "used Mexican" to Miss Jiminez (on right, played by Socorro Valdez) of the Governor's office in the film version of the play Los Vendidos, distributed by the Pixan Film Center of the El Centro Campesino Cultural.
Los Vendidos (The Sellouts) by Luis Valdez is one of the best plays of El Teatro Campesino to portray the Chicano struggle for survival against social injustice. Through the use of satire and humor the author shows the prejudice faced by Chicanos as he depicts a secretary from the Governor's office who has come to buy a Mexican American from Honest Sancho's Used Mexican Shop for token integration of his administration. Several "types" are interviewed and rejected, including the Revolucionario depicted above. "Made in Mexico," he is passed over since only American-made models are acceptable for the position available.

Folklore

American literature before the 1960s traditionally referred to written material grounded in a British-centered New England culture. One flaw of this view is its neglect of a significant body of literary production that traces its origins to ancient Mesoamerican art and ritual. Another problem is the neglect of important writers (like Miguel de Cervantes, author of Don Quixote, and Nobel laureate Gabriel Garcia Márquez) who write in Spanish, the actual or historical mother tongue of Mexican Americans. Further, the Anglo-centric view ignores the folklore of Mexican America that constitutes a central source of its artistic achievement.
A full appreciation of Chicano/a literature requires knowledge of its folklore. Myths, legends, cuentos (tales), chistes (jokes), and other types of grassroots expression form a basic part of the culture. This is true for all people, of course. Public schools introduce U.S. American children of all ethnic backgrounds to the stories of Cinderella, Robin Hood, Paul Bunyan, Daniel Boone, and Brer Rabbit. In contrast, Mexican American folklore is usually learned informally in the home and neighborhoods, often passed down by abuelos (grandparents) to the younger generations.

Most Mexican Americans can recount stories learned in childhood about la llorona (the weeping woman) and el coyote (the deceitful agent). Many can relate embellished accounts of such historical heroes as Benito Juarez, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa, like those told of George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. A few Chicanos/as learn the legends surrounding figures like La Malinche/Dona Marina, the Aztec guide who assisted Hernán Cortés, and Joaquín Murieta, the nineteenth-century Californio accused by Anglos of being a bandit. Another turn-of-the-century folk hero was Gregório Cortéz, a Texan about whom many corridos (ballads) were written, both during and after his lifetime. The film, The True Story of Gregório Cortéz, based on the book by folklorist Americo Paredes, presents another version of the legend.

Folklore relating to heroes like Villa or Zapata have inspired countless artists and writers. Similarly, folklore originating from among the common people appears throughout Mexican American art and literature.

Poetry

One way of looking at Chicano/a poetry is to see it as part of the tradition of flor y canto (flower and song) which extends back to the pre-Columbian poems of Mesoamerica. To the Nahuas (Aztec Indians), flor y canto was a form of prayer-poem to the divine Giver of Life Ométéotl, a male/ female deity. Playwright Luís Váldez and poet Alurísta were among the first to link Chicano/a literature to its ancient roots in flor y canto, but the idea quickly took firm hold among writers. The phrase is often used as a synonym for Chicano/a poetry.
Another way of understanding this poetry is suggested in Chicano Poetsy: A Critical Introduction. In it, scholar Cordelia Chávez Candelaria, presents the subject in three ways. First, she discusses the contexts of cultural and literary history from which Chicano poetry emerged. Second, she proposes an approach to the analysis of the poetry based on phases of style and theme. Third, she examines individual authors and poems from 1967 through the mid-1980s.

Phase I poetry by Mexican Americans refers to political protest writing linked closely to the Chicano movement. The principal energy of the movement, which emerged in the 1960s, was directed to the political and socioeconomic empowerment of Mexican Americans. Phase I poetry appeared roughly between 1967 and 1974, but it is important to stress that protest poetry cannot be confined to one time period alone, for it is still being composed.

Examples of writing that display Phase I features especially clearly include the epic poem I Am Joaquín by Rudólfo "Corky" Gónzales; the early work of Murista; and Pérros y antipérros by Sérgio Élizondo. Much of the work of Abelardo Delgado, Ángela De Hoyos, Ricardo Sánchez, and Carmen Tafolla also fits within this category.

The later phases show a shift away from blunt political statemen and social message. Phase II poetry describes the work that helped define and expand a distinct and unique Chicano/a poetics-poetics shaped from three sources:

1. its multilingualism (primarily English, Spanish, and Aztec and Mayan terms);
2. its mestizo/a symbols drawn from Mexican history and Chicano/a culture; and
3. its concern with ritual, both in its emphasis on the poem/performance as a communal rite and in its respect for the ritual traditions of the primitive past.

Alurísta is one master of Phase it poetry, particularly in his Flóricanto en Aztlán and Nationchild Plúmaroja. Also contributing to this verse are poets Luís Omar Salínas, Bernice Zámora, Ernest Padilla, José Montoya, Rául Salínas, and others, including some of the original movement protest poets.

Phase III poetry contains many of these traits as well as a degree of political protest. The phase is distinguished by greater sophistication of literary form and greater use of a private, subjective narrative voice. The work of Gary Soto, Lorna Dee Cervantes, Alberto Rios, Luís Omar Salínas, Yolanda Luera, and others exemplify this group. Their finely crafted poems are read and appreciated by ever-wider audiences.

Since 1977 and the publication of the first edition of A History of the Mexican American People, the production of Chicano/a poetry has increased and expanded greatly. Throughout its growth, however, one major theme has defined the field: identity. The nature, essence, and development of Chicano/a identity recur throughout the poetry as image, symbol, motif, and theme. To understand the cultural identity of Mexican America, therefore, requires the appreciation of its poetry.

Fiction

During the flourishing of the Chicano movement, very few prose fiction writers were identified with Mexican America. Among the few were José Antonío Villarreal, whose Pocho captured the struggles of a first-generation immigrant family in California, and Rud6lfo Anaya, whose Bless Me, Ultima portrayed the sensitivities of a New Mexican boy growing up within a U.S. culture older than the Declaration of Independence. Also published were the depictions of migrant farm workers by Ramond Barrio in The Plum Plum Pickers and Tomas Rivera in "... y no se lo trago la tierra." The autobiographical fiction of Oscar Zeta Acosta, the urban novels of Floyd Salas, and the regional fictions of Miguel Mendez, Sabine Ulibarri, and Rolando Hinojosa also appeared in this first generation of Chicano/a literary production.

In the late 1970s and throughout the 1980s, the landscape of fiction has changed considerably. Writers like Anaya, Hinojosa, and Mendez continued to publish and to solidify their place in Chicano/a letters, while some of their contemporaries are no longer writing. Other writers have entered the scene with fresh material and skillful styles. Some of these include Estela Portillo Trambley, Cherrie Morága, Aria Castillo, Denise Chávez, Ron Arias, Sandra Cisneros, and Nash Candelaria.

The landscape has also changed because literary scholars have uncovered the work of Mexican American fiction writers from earlier decades of the century. The narratives of Joséfina Niggli, Fray Angelico Chávez, and Fabióla Cabeza de Vaca are studied for their insight into the pre-Chicano/a experience of the Indohispanic United States. Research in archival sources continues to reveal a wealth of nineteenth-and early twentieth-century fiction long hidden from an active readership.

As this summary suggests and as scholar Vernon Lattin has declared, "the growth in both the quantity and quality of the Chicano novel since the publication of Pocho in 1959 has been phenomenal" (Lattin, 1986: p.9). If we expand his comment to include short fiction as well, then the growth has been virtually astronomical. Two collections of short stories published in the early 1980s make this point effectively. They are Cuentos: Stories by Latinas (edited by Alma Gómez, Cherrie Morága, and Mariána Rómo-Carmona) and Cuentos Chicanos: A Short Story Anthology (edited by Rud6lfo Anaya and Antonío Márquez).

In the 1977 edition of A History of the Mexican American People, this section concluded with a brief complaint about the lack of a "complete interpretation of Chicano literature" and the need for a stronger literary criticism (Samora and Simon, 1977: p. 208). Since then there have been some fine gains in this area. The excellent bibliographies by Catherine Loeb, Francísco Lomelí and Donaldo Urióste, Ernestina Eger, and Lillian Castillo-Speed attest to the improvement. Similarly, the following key reference tools made literary research easier in the eighties: Bruce-Novoa's Chicano Authors, Inquiry by Interview (1980), Meier and Rivera's Dictionary of Mexican American History (1981), Martínez and Lomelí's Chicano Literature, A Reference Guide (1984), and Lomelí and Shirley's Dictionary of Literary Biography, Chicano/a Volume (1989).

Despite these and other advances in criticism, large gaps still remain. The most noticeable is a need for the critical study of literature by Chicanas, as well as of feminist theory and gender issues in literature. Scholars like Marta E. Sánchez, Cordelia Chávez Candelaria, Maria Herrera-Sobek, Norma Alarcón, and others are contributing greatly to this important area. Finally, as in 1977, the overwhelming immediate need persists for active, responsive readers among the general public and greater space in major national publications.

The Visual Arts

As with the other art forms, productivity among Mexican American painters and sculptors has expanded phenomenally in the past decade. More and more artists are showing their work in galleries, traveling exhibits, museums, and other institutions, and reproductions of their artwork appear in more and more journals and magazines. In addition, a greater number of published studies of Chicano/a art have appeared.

Chicano/a art bears at least three distinct characteristics. First, there is the distinction of Mexican origins and/or ethnic background, including the foreign birth and bilingualism of many artists. Second, these artists enjoy the rich heritages of ancient cultures from both the eastern and western hemispheres. The pre-Columbian Indian cultural sources join the Jewish-Christian and Greco-Roman sources as creative inspiration for the aesthetics of Chicano/a artists. Third, many more Mexican American artists now express their chicanismo (Chicano/a values and philosophy) forcefully and self-consciously in their creations.

Besides being shaped by the ancient heritages of Europe, Chicanos/as have been influenced by pre-Columbian and Mexican artistic traditions. Mexico and parts of the U.S. Southwest contain many effects, both visible and hidden, of indigenous mythology and of Toltec, Mayan, and Aztec arts, crafts, and architecture (Shearer, 1971: pp.33-51). The temples of Oaxaca, the pyramids of Yucatan, the jewelry and tapestries of the Mixtecs, and the mammoth Toltec sculptures reflect the fine artistry that attained a "golden age" long before Columbus and other Europeans landed in the hemisphere. These early societies have played a significant role in shaping modern Mexican society and culture, and this influence in turn has helped create twentieth-century Mexican America.

Another important historical source of Chicano/a art occurs in the religious crafts of the Southwest. The mission architecture developed from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries represents a successful blend of function and beauty. The designers of these churches used native materials of the region to construct buildings of simple elegance (Quirarte, 1973: p. 18). The other influential religious art form of the Southwest is santo making, the crafting of "carved or painted representation [s] of holy persons, not exclusively restricted to saints" (Quirarte, 1973: p. 26). This form flourished in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and continues today, primarily in the greater Santa Fe area of New Mexico.

Perhaps the most direct influence on Mexican American art in the twentieth century has been the work of internationally renowned Mexican muralists Diego Rivera, Juan Or6zco, and David Al-faro Siquieros. Their murals synthesized European and Indian heritages into uniquely "Mexican" styles, forms, and themes. Although it is difficult to prove artistic influence, the worldwide acclaim of these painters have had inescapable effect on Chicano/a art. The same is true for the inspiration of Mexican painter Frida Khlo-especially on Chicana and other feminist artists.

The late 1960s witnessed the emergence of artists' organizations identified as Chicano/a in perspective. Two of the more well known of these groups were MALAF (the Mexican American Liberation Art Front), based in San Francísco, and C/S (Con Safo), located in San Antonío. These and similar associations sought to present in visual form an artistic record of Mexican American experience and of the Chicano/ a movement. By collective organizing and promotion of their goals, they have helped many aspiring artists in their training and also in gaining public exposure for their work.

The 1980s has seen the emergence of galleries and exhibits focusing on Latino/a art, and many of these have showcased the work of Mexican Americans. San Francisco's Mexican Museum and the city's Gallery Imago, Austin's Galería Sin Frontéras, and Denver's CHAC (Chicano Humanities and Arts Council) are but four of a number of galleries actively showing the work of Chicanos/as across the nation. Similarly, traveling exhibits sponsored by private corporations have brought increased national attention to Chicano/a and other Latino/a artists.
Although it is impossible adequately to cover all artists of merit in these few pages, some important names must be noted. Two sculptors of established reputation are Medellín (born 1907) and Luís Jimenez (born 1940). Working primarily in wood, Medellín's sculptures convey the timeless strength of pre-Columbian symbols. Quite a different style appears in Jimenez's creations, which are built primarily from such contemporary materials as epoxy and fiberglass. Jimenez favors mammoth size, bold colors, and modernistic themes to express his views of the failures and beauties of America's machine-based, pollution-producing culture.

Painters working and showing prior to the Sixties include Ant6nio Garcia (born 1901), primarily a muralist; Porfirio Salínas (b. 1912), famous for his Texas landscape paintings; Edward Chávez (b. 1917), who works in mural, easel, and sculpture; and Melesio Casas (b. 1929), creator of mural-size canvases and also a movie scriptwriter. Among the most commercially successful post-Sixties artists are Amado Peña and Alejandro Romero. Emphasizing his American Indian origins, Peña's work features elaborately stylized images of Indian figures and motifs. Now based in Chicago, Mexican-born Romero paints a brilliantly colored canvas charged with dynamic energy, busy crowd scenes, and musical imagery.
Other important painters of this period include Peter Rodriguez, Melaquias Montoya, Judith Baca, and Max Martínez. Tireless advocates of the social equity issues advanced by the Chicano movement, Montoya, Baca, and Martínez employ many clearly Chicano/a images in their work, while Rodriguez, founder of the Mexican Museum of San Francísco, is decidedly non-representational. One of the founders of MALAF, Montoya is eclectic in creating both representational images and highly abstract forms. Artistic director of SPARC (the Social and Public Art Resource Center), Baca is perhaps best known for her design and coordination of "The Great Wall of Los Angeles" mural project painted from 1976 to 1983, and currently for her "World Wall: A Vision of the Future without Fear," which explores "the material and spiritual transformation of an international society seeking peace (Pohl, 1990: p.34).

Recognized for his portraits of barrio figures, especially pachuco subjects, Martínez uses pastels and watercolors in often unexpected colors to convey the private side of Chicano/a experience.

One of the most exciting developments of the visual arts today is the productivity by Mexican American women. Painters Carmen L6mas Garza, Yolanda L6pez, and Esther Hernandez have produced increasingly popular artwork of great skill and originality. Along with the individuals discussed above, they and other fine artists (like Manuel Joel, Orlando Romero, Carmen Samora, Pedro Romero, and many others) assure the quality and integrity of a distinctly Chicano/a aesthetics and artistic production.

Music

The same roots that sprouted Mexican American literature and the visual arts also underlie Mexican American music-with one major difference, however. "The music brought over by the Spaniards and Portuguese practically obliterated indigenous music, and we have no guarantee that the latter has survived anywhere in its primitive form.... Examples of indigenous melody that has not undergone some European influence are very rare in Latin America" (Chase, 1959: p.263).

The absence of a word for music among many pre-Columbian Mesoamerican tribes has led to the assumption that these societies restricted music to ceremonial function. That many pre-Columbian musical instruments have sacred markings reinforces that assumption. Further research indicates otherwise, however, and reveals that music was actually an integral part of their daily life. Scholars have shown that "the teaching of music existed and special musical instruction was required in all religious and military schools" (Chávez, 1933: p. 170). Music was also the center of various public celebrations, and many early emperors (notably Nezahualcoyotl, a favored model for Chicano/a writers) devoted much time to musical composition (Boroff, 1971: p.250).

With Mexico's colonization came the development of Spanish music in the New World. Nearly a century before the English settled in North America, the Spaniards had established music schools (Chase, 1959: p.259). Although the New England Bay Psalm Book of 1640 is usually touted in U.S. textbooks as the first music book published in the New World, the first such publication, the Orlinarium, was actually printed in Mexico City in 1556, and it was followed by six other books of music published in Mexico before 1600 (Chase, 1959: p. 259).
Twentieth-century classical Mexican composers and musicians have increasingly worked the strains of folk music into their compositions. They follow the path of Manuel de Fálla, one of the most important Spanish composers, who used folk themes and motifs in his classical music. Mexico's Silvestre Revuéltas and Carlos Chávez are particularly notable for their synthesis of folk song into their classical work. Chávez in particular is "one of the few American musicians [who] ... is more than a reflection of Europe ... his work [is] ... one of the first authentic signs of a new world with its own new music" (Cop land, 1933: p. 106). These examples (and others, like singer Placido Domingo) of Mexican music and musicians form an important part of America's contribution to the world's classical repertoire.
In the popular music category, Mexicans and Chicanos/as are also well represented. Top-forty stars include singers like Ritchie Valens, Linda Ronstadt, Vicki Carr, and Johnny Rodriguez, as well as groups like Los Lobos.

Chicano/a art, in all its forms, reflects the complex history and vigorous experience of Mexican American culture. Whether music, literature, or visual arts, Chicano/a aesthetics grows from many roots. It is Mesoamerican Indian. It is Spanish. It is Southwest American Indian. It is Anglo American. It is mestizo-it is Chicano/Chicana.

REFERENCES

Alarcón, Norma. "Chicana's Feminist Literature: A Re-Vision through Malintzin/Malinche:
Putting Flesh Back on the Object." In This Bridge Called My Back, ed. by Cherrie
Morága and Gloria Anzaldua. 2nd ed. New York: Ritchen Table Press, 1983.

____. "Chicana Writers and Critics in a Social Context: Towards a Contemporary
Bibliography." Third Woman, vol.4, 1989.

____. "The Sardonic Powers of the Erotic in the Work of Aria Castillo." In Breaking
Boundaries: Latina Writings and Critical Readings, ed. by Asuncion Horno-Delgado,
Eliana Ortega, Nina Mi Scott, and Nancy Saporta Stern-bach, pp. 94-107. Amherst:
University of Massachusetts Press, 1989.

Arroyo, Ronald Di "La Raza Influence in Jazz." El Crito, vol.4, no.4 (summer 1972), pp. 80-
84.
Borroff Edith. Music in Europe and the United States: A History. Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-
Hall, 1971.

Bruce-Novoa, Juan. Chicano Authors: Inquiry by Interview. Austin: University of Texas Press,
1980.

____. Chicano Poetry: A Response to Chaos. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982.

Candelaria, Cordelia Chavez. "Anahuac Again and the Influence of Chicano

____. Writers." American Book Review, vol.4, no.5, 1982. "Bibliography." In Chicano
Poetry: A Critical Introduction. Westport, Conni: Greenwood Press, 1986.

____. "Chicano Focus." American Book Review, vol. 11, no. 6 (January-February), 1989.
Chicano Poetry: A Critical Introduction. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1986.

____. "Code-Switching as Metaphor in Chicano Poetry." In European Perspectives on
Hispanic Literature in the United States, ed. by Genevieve Fabre. Houston: Arte Publico
Press, 1988.

____. "Hang-Up of Memory: Another View of Growing Up Chicano." American Book
Review, vol.5, no.2, 1983.

____. "La Malinche: Feminist Precursor." Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, vol.5, no.2,
1980, pp.1-16.

____. "Los Ancianos in Chicano Literature." Agenda: A Journal of Hispanic Issues, vol.10, no.
5,1979.

____. "The Multicultural 'Wild Zone' of Ethnic-Identified American Literatures." In
Multiethnic Literatures of the United States: Critical Introductions and Classroom
Resources, pp. i-xiv. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, 1989.

____. "The 'Wild Zone' in Chicana Literary Study." Journal of Chicana Studies, vol.1, no. 1,
1992.

Candelaria, Cordelia Chavez, and Mary Romero, eds. "Las Chicanas." Frontiers: A Journal of
Women Studies, vol. 11, no.1 (special issue), 1990.

Castillo-Speed, Lillian. "Chicano Studies: A Selected List of Materials since 1980." Frontiers:
A Journal of Women Studies, ed. by Cordelia Chavez Candelaria and Mary Romero,
vol.11, no. 1,1990.

Chase, Gilbert. The Music of Spain. Rev. ed. New York: Dover Publications, 1959.

Chavez, Carlos. "The Music of Mexico." In American Composers on American Music, ed. by
Henry Cowell, pp. 167-72. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1933.

Copland, Aaron. "Carlos Chavez-Mexican Composer." In American Composers on American
Music, ed. by Henry Cowell, pp. 102-6. New York: Frederick Ungar, 1933.

Eger, Ernestina N. A Bibliography of Criticism of Contemporary Chicano Literature.
Berkeley, Cal.: Chicano Studies Library Publications, 1982.

Herrera-Sobek, Maria, ed. Beyond Stereotypes: The Critical Analysis of Chicana Literature.
Binghamton, N.Y: Bilingual Press / Editorial Bilingue, 1985.

Herrera-Sobek, Maria, and Helena Maria Viramontes, eds. "Chicana Creativity and Criticism:
Charting New Frontiers in American Literature." The American Review, vol.15 (fall-
winter; special issue), 1987.

Huerta, Jorge, ed. Necessary Theater: Six Plays about the Chicano Experience. Houston: Arte
Publico Press, 1989.

Limon, Jose E. "La Llorona: The Third Legend of Greater Mexico: Cultural Symbols,
Women, and the Political Unconscious." In Between Borders: Essays on
Mexicana/Chicana History, ed. by Adelaida R. Del Castillo, pp.399-432. Encino, Cal.:
Floricanto Press, 1990.

Lattin, Vernon E. Contemporary Chicano Fiction: A Critical Survey. Binghamton, N.Y:
Bilingual Press / Editorial Bilingue, 1986.

Lomeli, Francisco, and Carl Shirley, eds. Dictionary of Literary Biography. Vol.82:
Chicano Writers. Detroit: Gale Research Tower, 1989.

Lomeli, Francisco, and Donaldo Urioste. Chicano Perspectives in Literature: A Critical and
Annotated Bibliography. Albuquerque: Pajarito Publications, 1976.

Lomeli, Francisco, and Júlio A. Martínez, eds. Chicano Literature: A Reference Guide.
Westport, Conni: Greenwood Press, 1984.

Nicholson, Irene. Mexican and Central American Mythology. London: Paul Hamlyn, 1967.

Ortego, Philip Di, ed. We Are Chicanos: An Anthology of Mexican-American Literature. New
York: Washington Square, 1973.

Pohl, Frances F. "The World Wall, a Vision of the Future without Fear: An Interview with
Judith F. Baca." Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, vol.11, no.1,1990, ed. by
Cordelia Chavez Candelaria and Mary Romero.

Quirarte, Jacinto. Mexican American Artists. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973.

Romano-Vi, Octavio I., ed. Voices: Readings from El Grito. Berkeley, Cal.: Quinto Sol, 1971.

Sabloski, Irving. American Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.

Shearer, Tony. Lord of the Dawn: Quetzalcoatl Healdsburg, Cal.: Naturegraph Publishers,
1971.

Swan, Howard. Music in the Southwest. San Marino, Cal.: Huntington Library, 1952.

Váldez, Luis. Actos. Fresno, Cal.: Cucaracha Press, 1971.

GUIDE TO THE WORKS OF ARTISTS, MUSICIANS, WRITERS

Alurista. Floricanto en Aztlan. Los Angeles: UCLA Chicano Studies Center, 1971 (poetry).

____. Nationchild Plumaroja. San Diego: Tolecas de Aztlan Press, 1972 (poetry). Anaya,
Rudolfo. Bless Me, Ultima. Berkeley, Cal.: Tonatiuh, 1972 (novel).

Anaya, Rudolfo, and António Márquez, eds. Cuentos Chicanos: A Short Story Anthology.
Rev. ed. Albuquerque: New America / University of New Mexico Press, 1984 (short
stories).

Anzaldua, Gloria. Borderlands / La Frontera: The New Mestiza. San Francisco:
Spinsters Press / Aunt Lute Foundation, 1987.

____. Making Face, Making Soul: Haciendo caras: Creative and Critical Perspectives by
Women of Color. San Francisco: Aunt Lute Foundation, 1990.
Barrio, Raymond. The Plum Pickers. Sunnyvale, Cal.: Ventura Press, 1969 (novel).

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